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List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

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Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567) wearing a robe adorned with twelve dragons. The sun and moon drawn on the shoulders form the character ming ('bright'), the name of the dynasty.[1] National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Details
StyleYour Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor
First monarch
Last monarch
Formation
  • 1368 (Ming dynasty)
  • 1644 (Southern Ming)
Abolition
  • 1644 (Ming dynasty)
  • 1662 (Southern Ming)
Residence
AppointerHereditary

The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was an imperial dynasty of China that succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Sixteen emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled over the whole of China proper spanning 276 years. During their reign, China experienced a long period of economic growth and political stability.[2]

Below is a complete list of the emperors of the Ming dynasty, including their personal, temple, posthumous, and era names. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for 48 years (r. 1572–1620); the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[3]

The emperor of the Ming dynasty, as well as the emperors during the imperial era of China (221 BC – 1912), was known as the "Son of Heaven".[4] He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors. Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him. However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries. When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.[5]

The Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[6]

Background

[edit]
The Hongwu Emperor (left), who proclaimed the Ming dynasty on 23 January 1368, and his son, the Yongle Emperor (right), whose reign is often seen as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.[citation needed]

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and drove the Mongols out of China. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Da Ming (大明; 'Great Ming') and declared himself its first emperor.[7]

The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[8] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[9]

The Wanli Emperor on his state barge as depicted in the Return Clearing (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). Imperial journeys were used to impress the population with the emperor's power and wealth, and he travelled in luxury with a vast entourage. Journeys by water provided a useful opportunity for inspecting the upkeep of the all-important water-transport system and the maintenance of irrigation works and dykes.[10]

The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.[11] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[12] As the dynasty progressed, the subsequent emperors lacked the decisiveness of their founder and were subject to traditional limitations.[13] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[14] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[14] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[14] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[13]

In the late 1620s, peasant uprisings erupted in northern China. The weakened Ming government was unable to suppress them, and in 1644, the rebels even captured Beijing, leading to the Chongzhen Emperor's suicide.[15] To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.[16]

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[17]

List of emperors

[edit]
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
Personal name[a] Portrait Lifespan Reign Era name[b] Posthumous name[a][c] Temple name[a]
Zhu Yuanzhang
朱元璋
[22]
Portrait of the Hongwu Emperor 21 October 1328
– 24 June 1398
23 January 1368
– 24 June 1398
Hongwu
洪武
23 January 1368
– 5 February 1399
(22 January 1403)[d]
Emperor Gao
高皇帝
Taizu
太祖
Zhu Yunwen
朱允炆
[25]
Portrait of the Jianwen Emperor 5 December 1377
– 13 July 1402
30 June 1398
– 13 July 1402
Jianwen
建文
6 February 1399
– 13 July 1402
Emperor Hui
惠皇帝
Huizong
惠宗[e]
Zhu Di
朱棣
[27]
Portrait of the Yongle Emperor 2 May 1360
– 12 August 1424
17 July 1402
– 12 August 1424
Yongle
永樂
23 January 1403
– 19 January 1425
Emperor Wen
文皇帝
Chengzu
成祖[f]
Zhu Gaochi
朱高熾
[28]
Portrait of the Hongxi Emperor 16 August 1378
– 29 May 1425
12 August 1424
– 29 May 1425
Hongxi
洪熙
20 January 1425
– 7 February 1426
Emperor Zhao
昭皇帝
Renzong
仁宗
Zhu Zhanji
朱瞻基
[29]
Portrait of the Xuande Emperor 16 March 1399
– 31 January 1435
29 May 1425
– 31 January 1435
Xuande
宣德
8 February 1426
– 17 January 1436
Emperor Zhang
章皇帝
Xuanzong
宣宗
Zhu Qizhen
朱祁鎮
[30]
Portrait of Emperor Yingzong 29 November 1427
– 23 February 1464
31 January 1435
– 22 September 1449
Zhengtong
正統
18 January 1436
– 13 January 1450
Emperor Rui
睿皇帝
Yingzong
英宗
11 February 1457
– 23 February 1464
Tianshun
天順[g]
11 February 1457
– 26 January 1465
Zhu Qiyu
朱祁鈺
[32]
Portrait of the Jingtai Emperor 21 September 1428
– 14 March 1457
22 September 1449
– 11 February 1457
Jingtai
景泰
14 January 1450
– 11 February 1457
Emperor Jing
景皇帝
Daizong
代宗
Zhu Jianshen
朱見深
[33]
Portrait of the Jingtai Emperor 9 December 1447
– 9 September 1487
23 February 1464
– 9 September 1487
Chenghua
成化
27 January 1465
– 13 January 1488
Emperor Chun
純皇帝
Xianzong
憲宗
Zhu Youcheng
朱祐樘
[34]
Portrait of the Hongzhi Emperor 30 July 1470
– 8 June 1505
9 September 1487
– 8 June 1505
Hongzhi
弘治
14 January 1488
– 23 January 1506
Emperor Jing
敬皇帝
Xiaozong
孝宗
Zhu Houzhao
朱厚照
[35]
Portrait of the Zhengde Emperor 26 October 1491
– 20 April 1521
8 June 1505
– 20 April 1521
Zhengde
正德
27 January 1522
– 27 January 1522
Emperor Yi
毅皇帝
Wuzong
武宗
Zhu Houcong
朱厚熜
[36]
Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor 16 September 1507
– 23 January 1567
27 May 1521
– 23 January 1567
Jiajing
嘉靖
28 January 1522
– 8 February 1567
Emperor Su
肅皇帝
Shizong
世宗
Zhu Zaiji
朱載坖
[37]
Portrait of the Longqing Emperor 4 March 1537
– 5 July 1572
23 January 1567
– 5 July 1572
Longqing
隆慶
9 February 1567
– 1 February 1573
Emperor Zhuang
莊皇帝
Muzong
穆宗
Zhu Yijun
朱翊鈞
[38]
Portrait of the Wanli Emperor 4 September 1563
– 18 August 1620
5 July 1572
– 18 August 1620
Wanli
萬曆
2 February 1573
– 27 August 1620
Emperor Xian
顯皇帝
Shenzong
神宗
Zhu Changluo
朱常洛
[39]
Portrait of the Taichang Emperor 28 August 1582
– 26 September 1620
28 August
– 26 September 1620
Taichang
泰昌
28 August 1620
– 21 January 1621
Emperor Zhen
貞皇帝
Guangzong
光宗
Zhu Youjiao
朱由校
[40]
Portrait of the Tianqi Emperor 23 December 1605
– 30 September 1627
26 September 1620
– 30 September 1627
Tianqi
天啟
22 January 1621
– 4 February 1628
Emperor Zhe
悊皇帝
Xizong
熹宗
Zhu Youjian
朱由檢
[41]
6 February 1611
– 25 April 1644
2 October 1627
– 25 April 1644
Chongzhen
崇禎
5 February 1628
– 25 April 1644
Emperor Min
愍皇帝
Sizong
思宗
Southern Ming (1644–1662)
Title before accession Personal name[a] Lifespan Era name[b] Title
Reign
Temple name[a]
Prince of Fu
福王
Zhu Yousong
朱由崧
[42]
5 September 1607
– 23 May 1646
Hongguang
弘光
28 January 1645
– 17 August 1645
Emperor
19 June 1644
– 15 June 1645
Anzong
安宗
Prince of Lu (Luh)[h]
潞王
Zhu Changfang
朱常淓
[43]
1608
– 23 May 1646
regent Lu (Luh)
潞王監國[i]
1 July
– 6 July 1645
Regent
1 July
– 6 July 1645
Prince of Tang
唐王
Zhu Yujian
朱聿鍵
[44]
25 May 1602
– 6 October 1646
Longwu
隆武
18 August 1645
– 4 February 1647
Emperor
18 August 1645
– 6 October 1646
Shaozong
紹宗
Prince of Lu (Lou)[h]
魯王
Zhu Yihai
朱以海
[45]
6 July 1618
– 23 December 1662
regent Lu
魯監國[i]
16 February 1646
– 1653
Regent
7 September 1645
– 1653
Prince of Tang
唐王
Zhu Yuyue
朱聿鐭
[46]
1605
– 20 January 1647
Shaowu
紹武[j]
Emperor
11 December 1646
– 20 January 1647
Prince of Gui
桂王
Zhu Youlang
朱由榔
[47]
1 November 1623
– 1 June 1662
Yongli
永曆
5 February 1647
– 1 June 1662
Emperor
24 December 1646
– 1 June 1662
Zhaozong
昭宗

Posthumously recognized individuals

[edit]

This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Ming emperors posthumously.

Posthumously recognized emperors
Personal name
(lifespan)
Posthumous name Temple name Year recognized Notes
Zhu Bailiu
朱百六
(?–?)
Emperor Xuan
玄皇帝
Dezu
德祖
1368 Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[48]
Zhu Sijiu
朱四九
(?–?)
Emperor Heng
恆皇帝
Yizu
懿祖
Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[48]
Zhu Chuyi
朱初一
(?–?)
Emperor Yu
裕皇帝
Xizu
熙祖
Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor[48]
Zhu Shizhen
朱世珍
(1281–1344)
Emperor Chun
淳皇帝
Renzu
仁祖
Father of the Hongwu Emperor[48]
Zhu Biao
朱標
(10 October 1355 –
17 May 1392)
Emperor Xiaokang
孝康皇帝
Xingzong
興宗
1399
and
1644
Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne.
Son of the Hongwu Emperor.
Father of the Jianwen Emperor.
Posthumously recognized as emperor by the Jianwen Emperor. After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status. In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.[49]
Zhu Youyuan
朱祐杬
(22 July 1476 –
13 July 1519)
Emperor Xian
獻皇帝
Ruizong
睿宗
1538 Father of the Jiajing Emperor[50]
Zhu Changxun
朱常洵
(22 February 1586 –
2 March 1641)
Emperor Gong
恭皇帝
and
Emperor Xiao
孝皇帝
Gongzong
恭宗
1644 Father of the Hongguang Emperor[51]
Zhu Yuwen
朱宇溫
(1490–1560)
Emperor Hui
惠皇帝
1645 Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[52]
Zhu Zhouyong
朱宙栐
(1538–1564)
Emperor Shun
順皇帝
Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[52]
Zhu Shuohuang
朱碩熿
(? – 24 January 1630)
Emperor Duan
端皇帝
Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[52]
Zhu Qisheng
朱器墭
(?–1629)
Emperor Xuan
宣皇帝
Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors[52]
Zhu Cilang
朱慈烺
(26 February 1629 –
June 1644)
Emperor Dao
悼皇帝
1646 Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne.
Son of the Chongzhen Emperor.[53]
Zhu Changying
朱常瀛
(25 April 1597 –
21 December 1645)
Emperor Duan
端皇帝
Lizong
禮宗
Father of the Yongli Emperor[51]

Timeline

[edit]
Zhu YoulangZhu YuyueZhu YujianZhu YousongChongzhen EmperorTianqi EmperorTaichang EmperorWanli EmperorLongqing EmperorJiajing EmperorZhengde EmperorHongzhi EmperorChenghua EmperorJingtai EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingXuande EmperorHongxi EmperorYongle EmperorJianwen EmperorHongwu Emperor

Legend:

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e The emperor's personal name was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply Shang).[18] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name, usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters.[19] Another name given posthumously was the temple name, and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.[20] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[20]
  2. ^ a b Era name or reign title was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.[20]
  3. ^ These are just the shortened versions of the names. The Hongwu Emperor's full posthumous name, for example, was actually "Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao" (開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝; 'Heaven-Opening, Way-Implementing, Dynasty-Founding, Pinnacle-Standing, Greatly Worthy, Most Holy, Benevolent, Cultivated, Rightteous, Martial, Refined,Virtuous, and Successful Exalted Emperor').[21]
  4. ^ After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[23] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[24]
  5. ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[26]
  6. ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment.[26]
  7. ^ Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.[31]
  8. ^ a b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
  9. ^ a b Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
  10. ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
  2. ^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
  3. ^ Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
  4. ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 6–7.
  5. ^ Baud-Berthier (2003), pp. 84–85.
  6. ^ "Forbidden City". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  7. ^ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
  8. ^ Huang (1997).
  9. ^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
  10. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
  11. ^ Mote (2003), p. 98.
  12. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
  13. ^ a b Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
  14. ^ a b c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
  15. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
  16. ^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
  17. ^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
  18. ^ Wilkinson (2000), pp. 109–110.
  19. ^ Moule (1957), p. 106.
  20. ^ a b c Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[better source needed]
  21. ^ Taylor (1975), p. 31.
  22. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  23. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
  24. ^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
  25. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  26. ^ a b Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  27. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  28. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  29. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  30. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  31. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 171.
  32. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  33. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  34. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  35. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  36. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  37. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  38. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  39. ^ Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  40. ^ Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  41. ^ Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  42. ^ Kennedy 1943d, pp. 195–196; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  43. ^ Twitchett & Mote (1988), p. xxiii.
  44. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  45. ^ Kennedy 1943g, pp. 180–182; Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  46. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  47. ^ Kennedy 1943f, pp. 193–195; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  48. ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
  49. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  50. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  51. ^ a b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  52. ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
  53. ^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.

Works cited

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
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