African-American culture

African-American culture,^[1]^[2] also known as Black American culture or Black culture in American English,^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7] refers to the cultural expressions of African Americans, either as part of or distinct from mainstream American culture. African-American culture has been influential on American and global worldwide culture as a whole.^[8]^[9]^[10]

From their origins in Africa and subsequent journey to the Americas to modern-day accomplishments, African American culture is not simply defined by race or historical struggle^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17] but is deeply rooted in shared practices, identity, and community. African American culture encompasses many aspects, including spiritual beliefs,^[18] social customs, lifestyles, and worldviews. When blended together these have allowed African Americans to create successes and excel in the areas of literature, media, cinema, music, architecture, art, politics,^[19] and business, as well as cuisine^[20]^[21] marriage,^[22] and family.^[23]^[24]

A relatively unknown aspect of African American culture is the significant impact it has had on both science and industry. Some elements of African American culture come from within the community, others from the interaction of African Americans with the wider diaspora^[25] of people of African origin^[26] displaced throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, and others still from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community.

In addition, African American culture is influenced by Indigenous African Culture, and Native American culture.

Before the Civil Rights Movement, religious and spiritual life^[27] dominated many aspects of African American culture, deeply influencing cultural expression. Since the Movement, which was a mere 60 years ago—effectively just two generations—African Americans have built on the foundation of resilience and advocacy established during that era. This legacy has catalyzed significant progress, enabling African Americans to achieve success across every field of American life.^[28]

African-Americans have faced racial biases throughout various periods since arriving in the United States. These systemic injustices have included, but are not limited to; enslavement, oppressive legislation like discriminatory Jim Crow laws, societal segregation, as well as overt denial of basic human Civil Rights. Racism has caused many African-Americans to be excluded from many aspects of American life during various points throughout American history and these experiences have profoundly influenced African-American culture,^[29]^[30] and how African Americans choose to interact with the broader American society.^[31]^[32]

African-American cultural history

African Americans are the result of an amalgamation of many different countries,^[33] cultures, tribes and religions during the 16th and 17th centuries,^[34] broken down,^[35] and rebuilt upon shared experiences^[36] and blended into one group on the North American continent during the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and are now called African American.

Most African Americans are the descendants of enslaved people who lived within the boundaries of the present United States.^[37] In addition, African Americans that are American Descendant of Slaves (ADOS) are primarily of West African and coastal Central African ancestry, with varying amounts of Western European and Native American ancestry.^[38]

Roughly one-in-five Black people in the U.S. are immigrants or children of Black immigrants.^[39] While some Black immigrants or their children may also come to identify as African American, the majority of first-generation immigrants from Africa, do not, preferring to identify with their nation of origin. There is some recent research which shows that some Black immigrants to the US resist assimilation to reduce exposure to racial discrimination faced by native-born African Americans.^[40]

Shared history in the Americas

From the earliest days of American slavery in the 17th century, slave holders sought to exercise control over their people that were forced into slavery by attempting to strip them of their African culture. In the New World in general and in the United States in particular, the physical isolation and the societal marginalization of African enslaved people, and, later, the physical isolation and the societal marginalization of their free progeny facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans. Slave holders deliberately tried to repress independent political or cultural organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions or acts of resistance that took place in the United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas.^[41]

African cultures, slavery, slave rebellions, and the civil rights movement have all shaped African-American religious, familial, political, and economic behaviors.

The rich tapestry of African traditions provided a foundation for the spiritual practices of enslaved individuals, blending ancestral beliefs with Christianity to create vibrant forms of worship. This cultural resilience was evident in slave rebellions, which not only challenged the institution of slavery but also fostered a sense of community and shared identity among African Americans. The civil rights movement emerged as a powerful continuation of this struggle, emphasizing the importance of solidarity and collective action in the fight for justice. This historical legacy has influenced contemporary African-American families, shaping their values, community structures, and approaches to political engagement. Economically, the enduring impacts of systemic inequality have led to both challenges and innovations within African-American communities, driving a commitment to empowerment and social change that echoes through generations. This is heavily evident in the cultural practices and traditions that are displayed in the present day community. Traditions like songs, dances, language, and more.^[42]

The imprint of Africa is evident in a myriad of ways: in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion, cuisine, and worldview.^[43] Throughout all of this, African Americans have created their own culture and unique history in the United States.^[44]

In turn, African-American culture has had a pervasive and transformative impact on many elements of mainstream American culture. From inventors and scientists to media moguls and entertainers, African Americans have made significant contributions that have profoundly impacted daily American life. Their innovations, discoveries, and creative works have shaped various aspects of society, from technology and science to entertainment and media. Despite these substantial contributions, many people remain unaware of the extent to which African Americans have influenced and enriched everyday experiences in the United States.

This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization.^[45] Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well.^[46]

Oral tradition

The holders of enslaved trapped people (slaves) limited or prohibited their education, the fear was that education might empower the people, and inspire or enable emancipatory ambitions. In the United States, the legislation that banned enslaved people from getting a formal education likely contributed to their maintenance of a strong oral tradition, a common feature of indigenous or native African culture.^[48] This prohibition remained in effect until the passage of the Reconstruction Acts in the late 1860s. Specifically, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment (ratified in 1868) both helped lay the groundwork for broader educational opportunities by granting citizenship and equal protection under the law to African Americans, although they did not directly mandate school integration.

African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, mores, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many native African culture and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African-Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another.^[48]

Examples of African-American folktales include trickster tales of Br'er Rabbit^[49] and heroic tales such as that of John Henry.^[50] The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African-American folk tales into mainstream adoption.^[51] Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society.^[52] Other narratives that appear as important, recurring motifs in African-American culture are the "Signifying Monkey", "The Ballad of Shine", and the legend of Stagger Lee.

The legacy of the African-American oral tradition manifests in diverse forms. African-American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker's tone, volume, and cadence, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. The meaning of this manner of preaching is not easily understood by European Americans or others of non-African origin. Often song, dance, verse, and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Call and response is another element of the African-American oral tradition. It manifests in worship in what is commonly referred to as the "amen corner". In direct contrast to the tradition present in American and European cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker.^[53] This pattern of interaction is also in evidence in music, particularly in blues and jazz forms. Hyperbolic and provocative, even incendiary, rhetoric is another aspect of African-American oral tradition often evident in the pulpit in a tradition sometimes referred to as "prophetic speech".^[54]

Modernity and migration of African-American communities to the North has had a history of placing strain on the retention of African-American cultural practices and traditions. The urban and radically different spaces in which black culture was being produced raised fears in anthropologists and sociologists that the southern African-American folk aspect of black popular culture were at risk of being lost within history. The study over the fear of losing black popular cultural roots from the South has been a topic of interest to many anthropologists, who among them include Zora Neale Hurston. Through her extensive studies of Southern folklore and cultural practices, Hurston has claimed that the popular Southern folklore traditions and practices are not dying off, instead they are evolving, developing, and re-creating themselves in different regions.^[55]

Other aspects of African-American oral tradition include the dozens, signifying, trash talk, rhyming, semantic inversion and word play, many of which have found their way into mainstream American popular culture and become international phenomena.^[56] During slavery, African Americans adapted these linguistic traditions as a form of covert resistance and survival. Enslaved people developed signifying as a way to communicate subtly under the watchful eyes of slaveholders, often using coded language, humor, and indirection to express dissent, critique the powerful, or convey hidden meanings without being detected.^[57]

Spoken-word poetry is another example of how the African-American oral tradition has influenced modern popular culture. Spoken-word artists employ the same techniques as African-American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation.^[58] Rap music from the 1980s and beyond has been cited as an extension of African oral culture.^[48]

Harlem Renaissance

The first major public recognition of African-American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance pioneered by Alain Locke. In the 1920s and 1930s, African-American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African-American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African-American artists such as William H. Johnson, Aaron Douglas, and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans.^[56]

The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African-American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the Universal Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable quasi-Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s.^[59]

African-American cultural movement

The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism.^[60] It also inspired a new renaissance in African-American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African-American or "Black Arts Movement".

The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone ("Young, Gifted and Black") and The Impressions ("Keep On Pushing"), as well as the poetry, fine arts, and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness.^[61] Among the most prominent writers of the African-American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni;^[62] poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later became known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal, and Ahmos Zu-Bolton.

During the African American cultural Movement, Melvin Charles and Gleason T Jackson created the Black American Heritage Flag (also known as the African American Heritage Flag) in 1967 for Black Americans. It is used today as an ethnic flag that represents the African American people.

Another major aspect of the African-American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Négritude among the artistic and literary circles in the US, Caribbean, and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that "black is beautiful". During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in elements of African culture within African-American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African-American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans.^[63]

Music

Music in African-American culture extends far beyond the realms of performance and consumption; it is deeply rooted in community participation and interaction. The act of musicking—actively engaging with music in various forms—includes singing together in churches, participating in call-and-response patterns, dancing, and even informal music-making in social settings. In African-American churches, gospel music serves not only as a form of worship but also as a collective spiritual experience. Congregants engage fully in musicking, responding to the choir with shouts of affirmation, clapping, and even dancing, which fosters a powerful sense of unity and shared purpose.

The tradition of call-and-response, which originated in African and African-American spirituals, is a key feature in many genres, including gospel, jazz, and hip-hop. This dynamic interaction between performer and audience blurs the line between the two, inviting the entire community to participate. In jazz, for instance, improvisation between musicians can be viewed as a form of musicking where the performers engage in a musical dialogue that often involves audience feedback and interaction. Similarly, early hip-hop culture emphasized the participatory nature of musicking, with community members engaging through freestyle rap battles, breakdancing, and DJing. These musicking practices highlight the active role of music as a social connector, shaping cultural identity and fostering communal bonds.

This dynamic interaction with music reflects not only the rich musical heritage of African-American communities but also the centrality of music in expressing cultural values, resistance, and resilience.

African-American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Central and Southern regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African-American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony.^[48] During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals.^[64] The banjo was the first African derived instrument to be played and built in the United States. Slaveholders discovered African-American slaves used drums to communicate.^[65]

As far back as the 1700s, after drums were outlawed after the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina, African Americans created hamboning, patting their bodies in order to make their music.^[66]

Many African Americans sing "Lift Every Voice and Sing" in addition to the American national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner", or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith, and hope for the future.^[67] The song was adopted as the "Negro National Anthem" by the NAACP in 1919.^[68] Many African-American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. "Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing" traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, "The Star-Spangled Banner" at events hosted by African-American churches, schools, and other organizations.^[69]

In the 19th century, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African-American music entered mainstream American society. By the early 20th century, several musical forms with origins in the African-American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African-American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor's Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess.

Contemporary

The African-American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s fueled the growth of funk, soul, and later hip hop forms with sub-genres of hip hop to include; rap, hip house, new jack swing, and go-go. House music was created in black communities in Chicago in the 1980s. Hip hop and contemporary R&B would become a multicultural movement, however, it still remained important to many African Americans.^[71]

In the 21st century, African-American music has achieved unprecedented levels of mainstream acceptance and influence in American popular music. This is evident from its dominant performance on the Billboard charts, where genres such as hip-hop and R&B, deeply rooted in African-American culture, have surpassed even pop in terms of streaming and sales (Nielsen, 2018). The impact of African-American artists on contemporary music, fashion, and cultural trends is significant, with figures like Beyoncé, Kendrick Lamar, and Drake shaping the industry and reflecting its broad appeal across diverse audiences (Billboard, 2020).

Furthermore, the integration of African-American musical styles into mainstream media has been highlighted by high-profile collaborations and genre-blending successes, such as Lil Nas X’s "Old Town Road," which achieved historic chart success by merging hip-hop with country music (Billboard, 2019). Streaming platforms like Spotify and Apple Music also show the substantial engagement and commercial success of African-American music across various demographics, underscoring its wide-reaching influence and acceptance in the modern music landscape (Rolling Stone, 2021).

In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups.^[72]

As of November 2018, the leading music genre listened to by African Americans^[73] is R&B Rhythm & Blues (62%), Hip Hop (39%), Gospel (26%) Rap (21%) Soul/Funk(19%), Jazz(18%)

The arts

Dance

African-American dance, like other aspects of African-American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up the enslaved African population in the Americas as well as in traditional folk dances from Europe. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both everyday life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, Akan Line Dancing and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance.^[74]

In the 19th century, African-American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African-American dance to become popular with white dancers was the cakewalk in 1891.^[75] Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, the Jitterbug and the swing.^[76]

During the Harlem Renaissance, African-American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African-American dancers. African-American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading white choreographers, who often hired African-American dancers.^[76]

Contemporary African-American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African-American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African-American dance most notably in the hip-hop genre.^[77]

One of the uniquely African-American forms of dancing, turfing, emerged from social and political movements in the East Bay in the San Francisco Bay Area.^[78] Turfing is a hood dance and a response to the loss of African-American lives, police brutality, and race relations in Oakland, California.^[79] The dance is an expression of Blackness, and one that integrates concepts of solidarity, social support, peace, and the discourse of the state of black people in our current social structures.^[80]^[81]^[82]

Twerking is an African-American dance similar to dances from Africa in Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, Somalia and the Congo.^[83]

Art

*Midnight Golfer* by Eugene J. Martin, mixed-media collage on rag paper

From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the 20th century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States.^[84] During the period between the 17th century and the early 19th century, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures, and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African-American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion.^[85]

During the 19th century, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of 19th-century Southern quilting.^[86] Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee's Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African-American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art.^[87]

After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African-American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African-American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more European Americans began to pay attention to African-American art in America.^[88]

During the 1920s, artists such as Richmond Barthé, Aaron Douglas,^[89] Augusta Savage,^[90] and photographer James Van Der Zee^[91] became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African-American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African-American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence, and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves.

In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African-American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African-American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name "The Highwaymen". Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history.^[92]^[93] Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales.^[94]

The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African-American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AfriCOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, was being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in November 2007.^[95] Notable contemporary African-American artists include Willie Cole, David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Mose Tolliver, Reynold Ruffins, the late William Tolliver, and Kara Walker.^[96]

Ceramics

In Charleston, South Carolina, thirteen colonoware from the 18th century were found with folded strip roulette decorations.^[97]^[98] From the time of colonial America until the 19th century in the United States, African-Americans and their enslaved African ancestors, as well as Native Americans who were enslaved and not enslaved, were creating colonoware of this pottery style.^[97]^[98] Roulette decorated pottery likely originated in West Africa and in the northern region of Central Africa amid 2000 BCE.^[97]^[98] The longstanding pottery tradition, from which for the Charleston colonoware derives, likely began its initial development between 800 BCE and 400 BCE in Mali; thereafter, the pottery tradition expanded around 900 CE into the Lake Chad basin, into the southeastern region of Mauritania by 1200 CE, and, by the 19th century CE, expanded southward.^[97]^[98] More specifically, the pottery style for the Charleston colonoware may have been created by 18th century peoples (e.g., Kanuri people, Hausa people in Kano) of the Kanem–Bornu Empire.^[97]^[98] Within a broader context, following the 17th century enslavement of western Africans for the farming of rice in South Carolina, the Charleston colonoware may be understood as Africanisms from West/Central Africa, which endured the Middle Passage, and became transplanted into the local culture of colonial-era Lowcountry, South Carolina.^[97]^[98]

Symbolisms from Africa may have served as identity markers for enslaved African-American creators of stoneware.^[99] For example, David Drake's signature marks (e.g., an "X", a slash) and well as Landrum crosses, which were developed by enslaved African Americans and appear similar to Kongo cosmograms, are such examples from Edgefield County, South Carolina.^[99]

Literature

African-American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music.^[48] These stories influenced the earliest African-American writers and poets in the 18th century such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives.

During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights Movement, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin, and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression, and other aspects of African-American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and fiction works by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley. Such works have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status.^[100]

Cinema

African-American films typically feature an African-American cast and are targeted at an African-American audience. More recently, Black films feature multicultural casts, and are aimed at multicultural audiences, even if American Blackness is essential to the storyline.^[101]^[102]^[103]

Games

Card games are traditionally enjoyed by African Americans at familial gatherings.^[104] Originating Black card games include: Bid whist, Spades, Tonk, Pitty-Pat, and Rummy. "Talkin' the board" is not allowed in any game.

Hand games that trickled from Africa^[105] are also prominent in Black American culture. Double This, Double That, Mama Mama Can't You See, Slide Baby, Miss Mary Mack, Down, Down Baby, Rockin' Robin (Tweet), Down by the Banks of the Hanky Panky, and Shame, Shame, Shame are a handful of kinesthetic games enjoyed by— predominantly— young Black girls.

Museums

The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African-American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history.^[106] Museums devoted to African-American history are found in many African-American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland, The African American Museum in Cleveland and the Natchez Museum of African American History and Culture^[107] were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades, was primarily preserved through oral traditions.^[108]

Other prominent African-American museums include Chicago's DuSable Museum of African American History, and the National Museum of African American History and Culture, established in 2003 as part of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.^[109]

Language

When immigrant groups come to a new country, they often bring their native language with them and continue using it, at least initially, within their community. Over time, their language may blend with the dominant language of the new country, creating bilingualism or hybrid forms of words and phrases, however their language remains the root or starting point of the hybrid language they speak. Over time as the group of immigrants immerse themselves into the dominant culture, the more they use the dominant culture language and abandon less used words and phrases in their native tongue.

The history of the involuntary manner in which African Americans arrived in the United States, coupled with 100 years of forced segregation from the dominant culture allowed for a protracted period where language was being formed and shaped outside the traditional patterns. Most enslaved Africans brought to the Americas came from the West African^[110] coast. The languages of this region, such as those from the Niger-Congo family, had a significant influence. Some specific examples include the Wolof, Yoruba, Igbo and Mandé languages. There was also a large contingent from Central Africa, especially from regions where Bantu languages were spoken, such as Kongo (Kikongo), Mbundu and Swahili.^[111]

The native speakers of these and other languages were forced to quickly find a way to agree upon new words and phrases as a matter of survival, while also learning and integrating various dialects of American English which varied by region. Over time a divergent form of English emerged. Over the 246 years of chattel slavery in the southern US and societal segregation in the northern states, varied forms of English took root within the African American culture. An additional century of forced segregation and Jim Crow between 1865 and 1965 extended the period when African Americans, still not fully immersed in the broader society, did not experience the traditional process of adopting the dominant society's language.^[111]^[112]

Generations of hardships created by the compounded institutions of slavery imposed upon the African-American community prevented the majority of them from learning to read or write English, despite this, enslaved Africans continued to carry their language systems and culture, creating distinct language patterns. Filtering the English they heard through their language systems and culture.^[113]

While traditionally understood to be generally factual that European owners of enslaved Africans often intentionally mixed Africans who spoke different languages to discourage communication in any language other than English, the truth is that Africans were strategically placed in certain types of settings. West Africans were primarily (not exclusively) placed in non-field work in the upper southern colonies and West Central/Central Africans were primarily (not exclusively) placed in field based work in the lower southern colonies.^[112]

Africans in primarily non-field work typically had extensive interaction with Europeans in the early period, with cultural influence being bi-directional. Colonies typically preferred certain African ethnic groups, some very selective (South Carolina for example), others a bit more loose but still maintained a level of preference (Virginia for example). West Central and Central Africans brought with them a homogenous culture that superseded West African culture early on in establishing African-American culture, at a later point in history, West African influence displays itself in African-American culture.^[114]

Interaction between West Africans and West Central/Central Africans did occur, creating a lingua franca, however the culture of African Americans was heavily affected by the homogeneity and relatively isolated Bantu imported population. Later influence from West Africa presents itself in African-American culture. African-American speech however is heavily based (but not exclusively, includes West Africa to some extent) in Bantu culture, as such, it is responsible for African Americans' language patterns, combining an African substrate with the topical usage of primarily non-African words.^[115]

African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is touted to be a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of the American English language;^[116] however, mainstream non-AAL/V linguists have traditionally and intentionally ignored or dismissed African language systems and culture, missing key associations and connections. AAVE has its roots in the historical experiences of African Americans and plays a crucial role in cultural identity and expression. It has also significantly influenced mainstream American English, particularly through music, literature, and media.^[117] Linguists and speakers of AAL (African American Language) have shown not only that the grammatical structure of AAL is Niger-Congo, but also that the cultural/relational patterns within the language that are of African origin characterize or color it.^[115]

There exists convergence and commonality with many languages; these elements don't automatically indicate derivation. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both whites and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English, none of which is true; they are differences in languages. Many African Americans who were born outside the American South still speak with hints of AAVE or southern dialect. Inner-city African-American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE sometimes have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work.^[118]^[119] It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting.^[120]

Fashion and aesthetics

Attire

The Black Arts Movement, a cultural explosion of the 1960s, saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African-American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile.^[121] These colorful woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Asante and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual T-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions.^[122] Other manifestations of traditional African dress in common evidence in African-American culture are vibrant colors, mud cloth, trade beads and the use of Adinkra motifs in jewelry and in couture and decorator fabrics.

Another common aspect of fashion in African-American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual present their best appearance for worship. African-American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, "every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head",^[123] has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as "crowns".^[124]^[125]

Hip hop fashion is popular with African Americans. Grillz were made popular by African-American rapper Nelly.^[126] Sagging pants was a part of African-American culture.^[127] Air Jordan, a shoe brand named after former African-American basketball player Michael Jordan, is very popular among the African-American community.^[128]

African-American fashion designers include Sean Combs, Kimora Lee Simmons, Virgil Abloh and Kanye West.^[129]

Hair

Hair styling in African-American culture is greatly varied. African-American hair is typically composed of coiled curls, which range from tight to wavy. Many women choose to wear their hair in its natural state. Natural hair can be styled in a variety of ways, including the afro, twist outs, braid outs, and wash and go styles. It is a myth that natural hair presents styling problems or is hard to manage; this myth seems prevalent because mainstream culture has, for decades, attempted to get African-American women to conform to its standard of beauty (i.e., straight hair).^[130] To that end, some women prefer straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes.^[131] Although this can be a matter of personal preference, the choice is often affected by straight hair being a beauty standard in the West and the fact that hair type can affect employment. However, more and more women are wearing their hair in its natural state and receiving positive feedback. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one's hair natural.^[132]^[133]

Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, waves, fades, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Despite their association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have attained considerable, but certainly limited, social acceptance.^[134]

Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African-American men than in other male populations in the US.^[135] In fact, the soul patch is so named because African-American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style.^[136] The preference for facial hair among African-American men is due partly to personal taste, but also because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave.^[135]

Body image

Eurocentric beauty standards have widely shaped image. In an effort to unlearn these sentiments rooted in colonialism and white supremacy, a movement has ensued that promotes natural Black beauty. There are also individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting models with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types.^[134]^[137] Non-Black Americans have sometimes appropriated different hair braiding techniques and other forms of African-American hair. Afro features are too often ridiculed to be subject to glamorization by the non-Afro people who appropriate them.

Religion and spirituality

While African Americans practice a number of religions, Black Protestant is by far the most prevalent (59%), followed by Evangelical Protestant (15%).^[138]

Christianity

The religious institutions of African-American Christians are commonly and collectively referred to as the black church. During the era of slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice, some forced to become Christians while others brought Christianity from Africa.^[139] However, slaves managed to hang on to some of their traditional African religious practices by integrating them into Christian worship during secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African-American church.^[140]

African-American churches taught the belief that all people were equal in God's eyes, and they also believed that the doctrine of obedience to one's master which was taught in white churches was hypocritical—yet they accepted and propagated internal hierarchies and supported the corporal punishment of children among other things.^[140] Slave and master teachings were taught out of context by slave masters through the use of a Slave Bible where slave holders would remove pages and whole books of biblical scriptures, such as Exodus and others, that were heavily against ill-treatment of slaves, or those who worked for you, against kidnapping and selling of people, and that they felt could cause a rebellion.^[141]^[142] Instead, the African-American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future.^[143] Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African-American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787.^[140]

After the Civil War, the merger of three smaller Baptist groups formed the National Baptist Convention. This organization is the largest African-American Christian Denomination and it is also the second largest Baptist denomination in the United States. An African-American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African-American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations.^[144] African-American churches have served to provide African-American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied to them by mainstream American society. Because of this, African-American pastors became the bridge between the African-American and European American communities, a leadership position which enabled them to play a crucial role during the Civil Rights Movement.^[145]

Like many Christians, African-American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music.^[146] Productions can be found in African-American theaters and churches all over the country.^[147]

Islam

Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to mix of peaceful, violent and discriminative policies like Jizya introduction via the lucrative Trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Arabs and Berbers in North Africa. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: "The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa ... consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction.".^[148] Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconveniences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland.^[149]

In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial movements in the African-American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African-American Muslims now follow traditional Islam.^{[citation needed]}

Many former members of the Nation of Islam converted to Sunni Islam when Warith Deen Mohammed took control of the organization after his father's death in 1975 and taught its members the traditional form of Islam based on the Qur'an.^[150] A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. In fact, most African-American Muslims are orthodox Muslims, as only 2% are of the Nation of Islam.^[150]

Judaism

There are 150,000 African Americans in the United States who practice Judaism.^[151] Some of these are members of mainstream Jewish groups like the Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox branches of Judaism; others belong to non-mainstream Jewish groups like the Black Hebrew Israelites. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African-American religious organizations whose practices and beliefs are partially derived from Judaism. Their varied teachings often include the belief that African Americans are descended from the biblical Israelites.^[152]

In the last 10 to 15 years, studies have shown that there has been a major increase in the number of African-Americans who identify themselves as being Jewish.^[151] Rabbi Capers Funnye, the first cousin of Michelle Obama, says in response to skepticism by some on people being African-American and Jewish at the same time, "I am a Jew, and that breaks through all color and ethnic barriers."^[153]

Other religions

Aside from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, there are also African Americans who practice Buddhism and a number of other religions. There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in Syncretic Religions, such as Voodoo, Santería, Hoodoo,^[154] Ifá and diasporic traditions like the Rastafari movement. Many of them are immigrants or the descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among the larger American religions, these groups may be negatively viewed and they are sometimes the victims of harassment. It must be stated, however, that since the Supreme Court judgement that was given to the Lukumi Babaluaye church of Florida in 1993, there has been no major legal challenge to their right to function as they see fit.^[155]

Spirituality

Main Article Used: Hoodoo (spirituality)

Spirituality is an important aspect of African-American culture. Hoodoo is a spiritual practice with multiple aspects which include: tradition, practices, and numerous beliefs.^[156] This form of spirituality and practice is derived from Islam and stems from different regions. It was originally created by various aspects of spiritualities and elements of botanicals. The main aspect of the system incorporates beliefs from Islam and Abrahamic religions.

The history of the religions is based upon the Antebellum Era which is also known as the Antebellum South. The practice has roots within the supernatural world. This alteration of the human experience was heavily influenced in order to create change. "Hoodoo was created by African Americans, who were among over 12 million enslaved Africans from various Central and West African List of ethnic groups of Africa.^[157]^[158]

Irreligious beliefs

In a 2008 Pew Forum survey, 12% of African Americans described themselves as being nothing in particular (11%), agnostic (1%), or atheist (<0.5%).^[138]

Life events

For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. While African Americans and whites often lived to themselves for much of American history, both groups generally had the same perspective on American culture. There are some traditions that are unique to African Americans.^[159]

Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Some pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. These classes tend to focus on spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Many of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African cultures.^[160]

To this day, some African-American couples choose to "jump the broom" as a part of their wedding ceremony. Some sources claim that this practice can be traced back to Ghana. However, other sources argue that the African-American tradition of "jumping the broom" is far more similar to the tradition in England.^[161]^[162] Although, this tradition largely fell out of favor in the African-American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage.^[163]

Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African-American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks.^[164]

The spirituality of death is very important in African-American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings or homecomings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife; "Returning to God" or the earth.^[165] The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of the person's life, deeds and accomplishments—the "good things" rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans jazz funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend.^[166]

Cuisine

In studying of the African-American culture, food cannot be left out as one of the media to understand their traditions, religion, interaction, and social and cultural structures of their community. Observing the ways they prepare their food and eat their food ever since the enslaved era reveals about the nature and identity of African-American culture in the United States.^[167] Derek Hicks examines the origins of "gumbo", which is considered a soul food to many African Americans, in his reference to the intertwinement of food and culture in the African-American community. No written evidence is found historically about the gumbo or its recipes, so through the African-American nature of orally passing their stories and recipes down, gumbo came to represent their truly communal dish. Gumbo is said to be "an invention of enslaved Africans and African Americans" in Louisiana.^[168]

The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African-American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Soul food blends African, European, and Native American influences. Dishes like fried chicken, [collard greens], and cornbread are staples that reflect this rich cultural heritage and have become integral components of American cuisine. These culinary practices not only preserve historical recipes but also celebrate the resilience and creativity of the African American community. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many were often too poor to afford them.^[169] During slavery, many African Americans would take these sorts of leftover ingredients from their white owners, often less desirable cuts of meats and vegetables, and prepare them into a dish that has consistency between stew and soup.^[170]^[171] Through sharing of this food in churches with a gathering of their people, they not only shared the food, but also experience, feelings, attachment, and sense of unity that brings the community together.^[172]^[173]

Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes creative use of inexpensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing. Pig intestines are boiled and sometimes battered and fried to make chitterlings, also known as "chitlins". Ham hocks and neck bones provide seasoning to soups, beans and boiled greens.^[174]

Other common foods, such as fried chicken and fish, macaroni and cheese, cornbread, and hoppin' john (black-eyed peas and rice) are prepared simply. When the African-American population was considerably more rural than it generally is today, rabbit, opossum, squirrel, and waterfowl were important additions to the diet. Many of these food traditions are especially predominant in many parts of the rural South.^[174]

Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat, sodium, and starch. Highly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers, farmhands and rural lifestyles generally, it is now a contributing factor to obesity, heart disease, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes in a population that has become increasingly more urban and sedentary. As a result, more health-conscious African Americans are using alternative methods of preparation, eschewing trans fats in favor of refined vegetable oils and substituting smoked turkey for fatback and other, cured pork products; limiting the amount of refined sugar in desserts; and emphasizing the consumption of more fruits and vegetables than animal protein. There is some resistance to such changes, however, as they involve deviating from long culinary tradition.^[175]

Sweet potato pie is a popular soul food dessert.

Other soul foods African Americans cook are chicken and waffles and desserts like banana pudding, peach cobbler, red velvet cake and sweet potato pie.^[176]^[177] Kool-Aid is considered a soul food beverage.^[178]

Okra came from Ethiopia and Eritrea. Rice, common to Lowcountry region of South Carolina and Georgia, was imported from the island of Madagascar.^[179]^[180] Soul food is similar to gypsy cooking in Europe.^[181] The roots of soul food are spread up and down the West Coast of Africa, including countries like Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Cameroon, Gabon, Nigeria and Angola, as well as in Western European countries such as Scotland, but the fruits can be found across America.^[182]^[183]

Holidays and observances

As with other American racial and ethnic groups, African Americans observe ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. Holidays observed in African-American culture are not only observed by African Americans but are widely considered American holidays. The birthday of noted American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. has been observed nationally since 1983.^[184] It is one of four federal holidays named for an individual.^[185]

Black History Month is another example of another African-American observance that has been adopted nationally and its teaching is even required by law in some states. Black History Month is an attempt to focus attention on previously neglected aspects of the American history, chiefly the lives and stories of African Americans. It is observed during the month of February to coincide with the founding of the NAACP and the birthdays of Frederick Douglass, a prominent African-American abolitionist, and Abraham Lincoln, the United States president who signed the Emancipation Proclamation.^[184]

On June 7, 1979, President Jimmy Carter decreed that June would be the month of black music. For the past 28 years, presidents have announced to Americans that Black Music Month (also called African-American Music Month) should be recognized as a critical part of American heritage. Black Music Month is highlighted with various events urging citizens to revel in the many forms of music from gospel to hip-hop. African-American musicians, singers, and composers are also highlighted for their contributions to the nation's history and culture.^[186]

Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas.^[187] Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021.^[188]

In addition, other holidays celebrated were African American Day^[189] in Louisiana along with African American Emancipation Day^[190] across the United States in the 19th century after the abolition of slavery.

Another holiday not widely observed outside of the African-American community is the birthday of Malcolm X. The day is observed on May 19 in American cities with a significant African-American population, including Washington, D.C.^[191]

Another noted African-American holiday is Kwanzaa. Like Emancipation Day, it is not widely observed outside of the African-American community, although it is growing in popularity with both African-American and African communities. African-American scholar and activist "Maulana" Ron Karenga invented the festival of Kwanzaa in 1966, as an alternative to the increasing commercialization of Christmas. Derived from the harvest rituals of Africans, Kwanzaa is observed each year from December 26 through January 1. Participants in Kwanzaa celebrations affirm their African heritage and the importance of family and community by drinking from a unity cup; lighting red, black, and green candles; exchanging heritage symbols, such as African art; and recounting the lives of people who struggled for African and African-American freedom.^[192]

Names

Although many African-American names are common among the larger population of the United States, distinct naming trends have emerged within African-American culture. Prior to the 1950s and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European American culture.^[193] A dramatic shift in naming traditions began to take shape in the 1960s and 1970s in America. With the rise of the mid-century Civil Rights Movement, there was a dramatic rise in names of various origins.^[194] The practice of adopting neo-African or Islamic names gained popularity during that era. Efforts to recover African heritage inspired selection of names with deeper cultural significance. Before this, using African names was uncommon because African Americans were several generations removed from the last ancestor to have an African name, as slaves were often given the names of their enslavers, which were of European origin.^[195]

African-American names have origins in many languages including French, Latin, English, Arabic, and African languages. One very notable influence on African-American names is the Muslim religion. Islamic names entered the popular culture with the rise of The Nation of Islam among Black Americans with its focus on civil rights. The popular name "Aisha" has origins in the Qur'an. Despite the origins of these names in the Muslim religion and the place of the Nation of Islam in the civil rights movement, many Muslim names such as Jamal and Malik entered popular usage among Black Americans simply because they were fashionable, and many Islamic names are now commonly used by African Americans regardless of their religion. Names of African origin began to crop up as well. Names like Ashanti, Tanisha, Aaliyah, Malaika have origins in the continent of Africa.^[193]^[196]

By the 1970s and 1980s, it had become common within the culture to invent new names, although many of the invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le-, Da/De-, Ra/Re-, or Ja/Je- and suffixes such as -ique/iqua, -isha, and -aun/-awn are common, as well as inventive spellings for common names.^[197]

Even with the rise of creative names, it is also still common for African Americans to use biblical, historic, or European names.^[193]^[198]^[199]

Family

When slavery was practiced in the United States, it was common for families to be separated through sale. Even during slavery, however, many African-American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds. Free African men and women, who managed to buy their own freedom by being hired out, who were emancipated, or who had escaped the slave holder, often worked long and hard to buy the members of their families who remained in bondage and send for them.^[200]^[201]

Others, separated from blood kin, formed close bonds based on fictive kin; play relations, play aunts, cousins, and the like. This practice, a holdover from African oral traditions such as sanankouya,^{[what language is this?]} survived Emancipation, with non-blood family friends commonly accorded the status and titles of blood relations. This broader, more African concept of what constitutes family and community, and the deeply rooted respect for elders that is part of African traditional societies, may be the genesis of the common use of the terms like "cousin" (or "cuz"), "aunt", "uncle", "brother", "sister", "Mother", and "Mama" when addressing other African-American people, some of whom may be complete strangers.^[202]^[203]

76% of African Americans have said they have spoken with their relatives to learn about their family history.^[204]

African-American family structure

Immediately after slavery, African-American families struggled to reunite and rebuild what had been taken. As late as 1960, when most African Americans lived under some form of segregation, 78 percent of African-American families were headed by married couples. This number steadily declined during the latter half of the 20th century.^[205] For the first time since slavery, a majority of African-American children live in a household with only one parent, typically the mother.^[206]

This apparent weakness is balanced by mutual-aid systems established by extended family members to provide emotional and economic support. Older family members pass on social and cultural traditions such as religion and manners to younger family members. In turn, the older family members are cared for by younger family members when they cannot care for themselves. These relationships exist at all economic levels in the African-American community, providing strength and support both to the African-American family and the community.^[207]

African Americans are less likely to own a pet.^[208]

Interracial marriages have increased for African Americans since Loving Vs. Virginia.^[209]

More than half (51.2%) of African-American children lived with a single parent in 2022, compared with about one in five (21.3%) of white American children.^[210]

When African Americans were taken from their homes and forced into slavery, they were separated from mothers, fathers, sisters and brothers and were torn apart from extensive kinship networks.^[211]^[212]^[213]

Politics and social issues

Since the passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, African Americans are voting and being elected to public office in increasing numbers. As of 2008^[update] the United States had approximately 10,000 African-American elected officials.^[214] African Americans overwhelmingly associate with the Democratic Party. Only 11% of African Americans supported for George W. Bush in the 2004 Presidential Election.^[215] In 2016, only 8% of African Americans voted for Republican Donald Trump while 88% of African Americans voted for Democrat Hillary Clinton.^[216]

Social issues such as racial profiling,^[217] racial disparities in sentencing,^[218] higher rates of poverty,^[219] lower access to health care^[220] and institutional racism^[221] in general are important to the African-American community.

African-Americans may express political and social sentiments through hip-hop culture, including graffiti, break-dancing, rapping, and more.^[222]^[223]^[224] This cultural movement makes statements about historical, as well as present-day topics like street culture and incarceration, and oftentimes expresses a call for change.^[225]^[226] Hip-hop artists play a prominent role in activism and in fighting social injustices, and have a cultural role in defining and reflecting on political and social issues.^[227]

Prominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay-rights issues such as gay marriage. This stands in stark contrast to the down-low phenomenon of covert male–male sexual acts. Some within the African-American community take a different position, notably the late Coretta Scott King^[228] and the Reverend Al Sharpton.^[229] Sharpton, when asked in 2003 whether he supported gay marriage, replied that he might as well have been asked if he supported black marriage or white marriage.^[230]

One of the most well known social and political organizations of Black culture is the Black Panther Party, a now-defunct African-American socialist organization. Black Culture also utilizes cultural slogans for social and political standing such as Say it Loud, I'm Black and I'm Proud, Black Card, and even “It's a Black Thing, You Wouldn't Understand”, a popular slogan that was born inside of Black American culture, referring to their culture, not race.

African-American LGBT culture

The Black LGBT community refers to the African-American (Black) population who are members of the LGBT community, as a community of marginalized individuals who are further marginalized within their own community. Surveys and research have shown that 80% of African Americans say gays and lesbians endure discrimination compared to the 61% of whites. Black members of the community are not only seen as "other" due to their race, but also due to their sexuality, so they had to combat both racism and homophobia.^[231]

Black LGBT first started to be visible during the Harlem Renaissance when a subculture of LGBTQ African-American artists and entertainers emerged. This included people like Alain Locke, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Wallace Thurman, Richard Bruce Nugent, Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, Moms Mabley, Mabel Hampton, Alberta Hunter, and Gladys Bentley. Places like Savoy Ballroom and the Rockland Palace hosted drag-ball extravaganzas with prizes awarded for the best costumes. Langston Hughes depicted the balls as "spectacles of color". Historian George Chauncey, author of Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940, wrote that during this period "perhaps nowhere were more men willing to venture out in public in drag than in Harlem".^[232]

African-American population centers

The Fifth Ward, an African-American neighborhood in Houston, Texas

African-American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African-American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws, or as a product of social norms. Despite this, African-American neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of nearly all aspects of both African-American culture and broader American culture.^[233]

Ghettos

Due to segregated conditions and widespread poverty, some African-American neighborhoods in the United States have been called "ghettos". The use of this term is controversial and, depending on the context, potentially offensive. Despite mainstream America's use of the term "ghetto" to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic minorities, those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The African-American ghettos did not always contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating projects, nor were all of its residents poverty-stricken. For many African Americans, the ghetto was "home", a place representing authentic "blackness" and a feeling, passion, or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and suffering of being of African descent in America.^[234]

Langston Hughes relays in the "Negro Ghetto" (1931) and "The Heart of Harlem" (1945): "The buildings in Harlem are brick and stone/And the streets are long and wide,/But Harlem's much more than these alone,/Harlem is what's inside." Playwright August Wilson used the term "ghetto" in Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (1984) and Fences (1987), both of which draw upon the author's experience growing up in the Hill District of Pittsburgh, an African-American ghetto.^[235]

Although African-American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment,^[236] with lower-quality schools,^[237] less-effective policing^[238] and fire protection,^[239]^[240] there are institutions such as churches and museums and political organizations that help to improve the physical and social capital of African-American neighborhoods. In African-American neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion.^[241] For some African Americans, the kind spirituality learned through these churches works as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of racism.^[242] Museums devoted to African-American history are also found in many African-American neighborhoods.

Many African-American neighborhoods are located in inner cities, and these are the mostly residential neighborhoods located closest to the central business district. The built environment is often row houses or brownstones, mixed with older single-family homes that may be converted to multi-family homes. In some areas there are larger apartment buildings. Shotgun houses are an important part of the built environment of some southern African-American neighborhoods. The houses consist of three to five rooms in a row with no hallways. This African-American house design is found in both rural and urban southern areas, mainly in African-American communities and neighborhoods.^[243]

Flag

African Americans acknowledge both the American flag and the Pan-African flag. The United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), established in 1914, designed this flag in 1920. The color red symbolizes the blood that individuals must sacrifice for their freedom and redemption; black represents the noble and esteemed race to which black people belong, while green signifies the abundant vegetation of African American people’s ancestral homeland.^[244]

Social networks

BlackPeopleMeet.com logo

There are African-American social networking websites such as BlackPlanet.^[245] Social media is an important political outlet for African Americans.^[246] African-American teenagers are the biggest users of Instagram and Snapchat.^[247]

Education

African Americans have valued education since slavery. African-American communities have worked together to firm and finance public schools. Even when they were barred from accessing education, Black Americans worked together with their supporters to build black colleges for black people.^[248] Education for black slaves was heavily prohibited. Enslaved black children and black adults had to take extreme measures to gain literacy, including having to attend underground schools.^[249] White Southern slaveholders generally opposed slave literacy in the Southern United States.^[250]

Some of the most prominent institutions of Black Culture are the historically Black Colleges and Universities, known as HBCUs. Some of the most renowned of these institutions are Tuskegee University founded by the formerly enslaved Booker T. Washington and Bethune Cookman University founded by Mary McCleod Bethune. There are over 100 HBCUs in the United States of America.^[251]

Literature

African-American literature emerged in the 18th century, with Phillis Wheatley, an enslaved author, being the first African American to have written published books of poetry.^[252]^[253] Other prominent authors include W. E. B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, Richard Wright, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Alice Walker.

As African Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries, African American literature has evolved. Before the American Civil War, the literature primarily consisted of memoirs by people who had escaped from enslavement the genre of slave narratives included accounts of life in enslavement and the path of justice and redemption to freedom. There was an early distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks born in the North. Free blacks expressed their oppression in a different narrative form. Free blacks in the North often spoke out against enslavement and racial injustices by using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the same themes of enslaved people narratives but has been largely ignored in current scholarly conversation.^[254]

Folklore

Historically, African-American folklore revolved around the storytelling and oral history of enslaved African Americans. Prevalent themes in African-American folktales include tricksters, life lessons, the hardships of slavery, and heartwarming tales. African Americans told stories of folk spirits that could outwit their slaveholders and defeat their enemies. These folk stories gave hope to enslaved people that folk spirits would free them from slavery.^[255]^[256]^[257]^[258]^[259] Folktales have been used to perpetuate negative stereotypes about the African-American community from Minstrel shows to academic journals.^[260]

Cinema

References

^ "Black is Beautiful: The Emergence of Black Culture and Identity in the 60s and 70s". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
^ "Black History and Culture". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
^ "The Montgomery Advertiser 20 Feb 2020, page D6". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
^ Brown, Angela (October 2013). "Cultural Perspective on African American Culture" (PDF). The International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies. 1 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2023 – via AIAC.
^ "The News and Observer 22 Jan 1997, page 12". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2023. Retrieved March 10, 2023.
^ "Journal and Courier 21 Sep 2008, page 13". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
^ "Black is Beautiful: The Emergence of Black Culture and Identity in the 60s and 70s". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Archived from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
^ Mcmanus, Melanie (May 27, 2021). "Dancing at the new National Museum of African American Music in Nashville". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved December 21, 2021.
^ White, Constance. "How African Americans Have Influenced Style and Culture". Time. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved December 21, 2021.
^ Reynolds, Marcellas (2019). Supreme Models Iconic Black Women Who Revolutionized Fashion. ABRAMS. ISBN 9781683356622. Archived from the original on April 23, 2023. Retrieved March 18, 2023.
^ Washington, Harriet A. (2008). Medical apartheid: the dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present. New York, NY: Anchor books. ISBN 978-0-7679-1547-2.
^ Rediker, Marcus (2008). The slave ship: a human history. A Penguin book History African-American studies. New York, NY: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311425-3.
^ Woodward, C. Vann (2002). The strange career of Jim Crow (Commemorative ed.). Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514689-9.
^ Anderson, James D. (1995). The education of Blacks in the South, 1860 - 1935 (Nachdr. ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4221-8.
^ Lowery, Wesley (2016). They can't kill us all: the story of the struggle for Black lives (First Back Bay paperback ed.). New York, NY: Back Bay Books : Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-31249-3. OCLC 968310784. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Baradaran, Mehrsa (2019). The color of money: black banks and the racial wealth gap (First Harvard University Press paperback ed.). Cambridge London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-23747-6.
^ Alexander, Michelle (2012). The new Jim Crow: mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness (Revised paperback ed.). New York: New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-643-8.
^ Latimore, David (August 27, 2024). "Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Black Church: This Is Our Story, This Is Our Song". Homiletic. 49 (1): 72–73. doi:10.15695/hmltc.v49i1.5632. ISSN 2152-6923. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ "In Search of the Black Fantastic: Politics and Popular Culture in the Post Civil-Rights Era (review)". American Studies. 50 (3–4): 151–152. September 2009. doi:10.1353/ams.2009.0009. ISSN 2153-6856.
^ "High on the Hog: A Culinary Journey from Africa to America". Science. 377 (6614): 1497. September 30, 2022. Bibcode:2022Sci...377.1497.. doi:10.1126/science.ade8448. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 36173834. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Tipton-Martin, Toni (September 2014). "Breaking the Jemima Code: The Legacy of African American Cookbooks". Ecotone. 10 (1): 116–120. doi:10.1353/ect.2014.0042. ISSN 2165-2651.
^ Hunter, Tera W. (April 24, 2017). Bound in Wedlock. Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674979208. ISBN 978-0-674-97920-8.
^ Akubue-Brice, Dorothy A. Smith; Dunaway, Wilma A.; Dunaway, Wilma A. (August 1, 2005). "The African-American Family in Slavery and Emancipation". The Journal of Southern History. 71 (3): 696. doi:10.2307/27648852. ISSN 0022-4642. JSTOR 27648852.
^ Sanders, Joshunda (May 31, 2018), "Coates, Ta-Nehisi", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.39161, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved September 4, 2024
^ Manning, Patrick (September 18, 2023), "Education Across the African Diaspora, 1500–2020", Education Across the African Diaspora, London: Routledge, pp. 9–18, doi:10.4324/9781032616315-2, ISBN 978-1-032-61631-5, retrieved September 4, 2024
^ Griffin, Iverson; Gilroy, Paul (May 1995). "The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness". Contemporary Sociology. 24 (3): 399. doi:10.2307/2076536. ISSN 0094-3061. JSTOR 2076536. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ SERNETT, MILTON C., ed. (January 17, 2000). African American Religious History. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11smnkh. ISBN 978-0-8223-9603-1. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Morris, Aldon (July 13, 2021). "From Civil Rights to Black Lives Matter". Scientific American. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
^ Gomez, Michael Angelo (1998). Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South. University of North Carolina Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-8078-6171-5.
^ "The Explosion of Culture and Arts During the Harlem Renaissance". TheCollector. October 7, 2022. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
^ "Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (review)". Alabama Review. 62 (3): 212–213. July 2009. doi:10.1353/ala.2009.0020. ISSN 2166-9961.
^ Du Bois, W. E. B. (May 28, 2009). Edwards, Brent Hayes (ed.). The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/owc/9780199555833.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-955583-3. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Seigel, Micol (February 2011). "Patrick Manning . The African Diaspora: A History through Culture . (Columbia Studies in International and Global History.) New York : Columbia University Press . 2009 . Pp. xxii, 394. $29.95". The American Historical Review. 116 (1): 251–252. doi:10.1086/ahr.116.1.251. ISSN 0002-8762. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Harris, Robert L.; Huggins, Nathan Irvin (October 1978). "Black Odyssey: The Afro-American Ordeal in Slavery". The American Historical Review. 83 (4): 1095. doi:10.2307/1867827. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR 1867827. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Avila, Eric (August 23, 2018). "American Cultural History: A Very Short Introduction". Very Short Introductions. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780190200589.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-020058-9.
^ "Higginbotham, A(loysius) Leon, Jr.", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, April 7, 2005, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.41656, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, archived from the original on September 7, 2024, retrieved September 4, 2024
^ Love, Ms Bathsheba. "Murrell Library Research Guides: African-Americans & the Black Experience: African-American Identity & Culture". libguides.moval.edu. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
^ Salas, Antonio; Carracedo, Angel; Richards, Martin; Macaulay, Vincent (October 2005). "Charting the ancestry of African Americans". American Journal of Human Genetics. 77 (4): 676–680. doi:10.1086/491675. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1275617. PMID 16175514.
^ Tamir, Christine (January 27, 2022). "Key findings about Black immigrants in the U.S." Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on September 5, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
^ Adida, Claire L.; Robinson, Amanda Lea (2023). "Why (some) immigrants resist assimilation: US racism and the African immigrant experience". Quarterly Journal of Political Science. 18 (3): 295–338. doi:10.1561/100.00021091. ISSN 1554-0626. PMC 10706603. PMID 38077161.
^ Price, Richard (1996). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Anchor Books. pp. 1–33.
^ "Black Joy: Resistance, Resilience and Reclamation". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
^ "Digital History". www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ "The Cincinnati Enquirer 01 Mar 2000, page Page 12". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on June 20, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
^ "African American Voices: Slave Culture". University of Houston. June 2, 2007. Archived from the original on May 7, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ Geneviève Fabre, Robert G. O'Meally (1994). History and Memory in African-American Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 12–208.
^ Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura (January 13, 2023). "African and Invisible: The Other New York Migrant Crisis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Papa, Maggie; Gerber, Amy; Mohamed, Abeer. "African American Culture through Oral Tradition". George Washington University. Archived from the original on May 27, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
^ "Editor's Analysis of "The Wonderful Tar Baby Story"". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on October 17, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
^ "John Henry: The Steel Driving Man". ibiblio. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
^ "Uncle Remus". UncleRemus.com. 2003. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 10, 2007.
^ "EDITOR'S PREFACES". UncleRemus.com. 2003. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 10, 2007.
^ Raboteau, Albert J. (1995). A Fire in the Bones: Reflections on African-American Religious History. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-0933-4. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
^ Fabre and O'Meally, pp. 219–244.
^ Dunbar, EVE E. (January 1, 2013). "Becoming American through Ethnographic Writing". In DUNBAR, EVE E. (ed.). Black Regions of the Imagination. African American Writers between the Nation and the World. Temple University Press. pp. 16–57. ISBN 978-1-4399-0942-3. JSTOR j.ctt14bt4hc.6.
^ ^a ^b Michael L. Hecht, Ronald L. Jackson, Sidney A. Ribeau (2003). African American Communication: Exploring Identity and Culture? Routledge. pp. 3–245.
^ "The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism. Henry Louis Gates, Jr". Modern Philology. 88 (2): 224–226. November 1990. doi:10.1086/391861. ISSN 0026-8232. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Miazga, Mark (December 15, 1998). "The Spoken Word Movement of 1990s". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
^ Johnson, William H. "The Harlem Renaissance". fatherryan.org. Archived from the original on June 1, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ "Black Power". King Encyclopedia. Stanford University. Archived from the original on December 4, 2013. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ "Black Power". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on February 27, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ "Nikki Giovanni". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ "Black Aesthetic". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ Stewart, Earl L. (August 1, 1998). African American Music: An Introduction. Prentice Hall International. pp. 5–15. ISBN 0-02-860294-3.
^ "The History of African American Music | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on May 8, 2019. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ "Hambone | African/African-American Culture". PBS LearningMedia. Archived from the original on March 26, 2023. Retrieved March 25, 2023.
^ Bond, Julian; Wilson, Sondra Kathryn, eds. (2000). Lift Every Voice and Sing: A Celebration of the Negro National Anthem; 100 Years, 100 Voices. Random House. ISBN 0-679-46315-1. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "Lift Every Voice and Sing". National Public Radio. February 4, 2002. Archived from the original on May 28, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ McIntyre, Dean B. (January 20, 2000). "Lift Every Voice -- 100 Years Old". General Board of Discipleship. Archived from the original on May 7, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ The Story of African American Music.
^ "How Black Music Changed History". Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Southern., Eileen (1997). The Music of Black Americans: A History (3rd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97141-4.
^ "Leading music genres among African Americans U.S. 2018". Statista. Archived from the original on May 23, 2024. Retrieved September 4, 2024.
^ Wood, Peter H. ""Gimmie de Knee Bone Bent":African Body Language and the Evolution of American Dance Forms". Free to Dance: Behind the Dance. PBS. Archived from the original on August 14, 2007. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
^ "Cakewalk Dance". Streetswing Dance History Archive. Archived from the original on June 11, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Ballroom, Boogie, Shimmy Sham, Shake: A Social and Popular Dance Reader. Julie Malnig. Edition: illustrated. University of Illinois Press. 2009, pp. 19–23.
^ "African American Dance, a history!". The African American Registry. Archived from the original on May 5, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ Bragin, Naomi Elizabeth. "Black Street Movement: Turf Dance, YAK Films and Politics of Sitation in Oakland, California". ["Collected Work: Dance and the social city. Birmingham, Ala: Society of Dance History Scholars, 2012, pp. 51–57.
^ "Shot and Captured". Tdr-The Drama Review-The Journal of Performance Studies, vol. 58, no. 2, n.d., pp. 99–114.
^ "From Streets To Stage, Two Dance Worlds See Harmonization And Chaos" Archived November 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Weekend Edition Saturday, January 23, 2016. Literature Resource Center.
^ Simms, Renee. "Immortal Dance in the Age of Michael Brown". Southwest Review, no. 1, 2017, p. 74.
^ "Conscious Quiet as a Mode of Black Visual Culture". Black Camera: The New Series, vol. 8, no. 1, Fall 2016, pp. 146–154.
^ "An Abridged History of Twerk Culture". playboy.com. Archived from the original on July 25, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ Patton., Sharon F. (1998). African-American Art. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-284213-7. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Powell, Richard (April 2005). "African American Art". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-465-00071-1. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "Harriet Powers". Early Women Masters. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "The Quilts of Gees Bend". Tinwood Ventures. 2004. Archived from the original on February 22, 2004. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Southern, Eileen. Music of Negro Americans: A History. New York: Norton, 1997, pp. 404–409.
^ "Aaron Douglas (1898–1979)". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 13, 2006. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
^ "Augusta Fells Savage (1882–1962)". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 13, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
^ "James Van Der Zee Biography (1886–1983)". biography.com. Archived from the original on July 20, 2012. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
^ Hall, Ken (2004). "The Highwaymen". McElreath Printing & Publishing, Inc. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "Updates & Snapshots 2006". James Gibson. 2000. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Painting by a Florida Highwayman Archived January 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
^ Smith, Roberta (September 9, 2007). "Solo Museum Shows: Not the Usual Suspects". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
^ "African Americans in the Visual Arts". Long Island University. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Sattes, Corey A. H.; Platt, Sarah E. "Rouletted Colonoware African-Style Pottery In Charleston, South Carolina" (PDF). Society For American Archaeology. SAA Archaeological Record. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Marcoux, Jon; et al. (January 2020). "Preliminary Identification of African-Style Rouletted Colonoware in the Colonial South Carolina Lowcountry". Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage. 9 (1): 1. doi:10.1080/21619441.2020.1840837. S2CID 228856494. Archived from the original on April 10, 2022. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
^ ^a ^b Joseph, J. W. (2011). "... All of Cross'—African Potters, Marks, and Meanings in the Folk Pottery of the Edgefield District, South Carolina". Historical Archaeology. 45 (2): 134–155. doi:10.1007/BF03376836. JSTOR 23070092. S2CID 160445944. Archived from the original on April 10, 2022. Retrieved May 12, 2021.
^ Ward, Jerry W. Jr. (April 7, 1998). M. Graham (ed.). To Shatter Innocence: Teaching African American Poetry. Teaching African American Literature. Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 0-415-91695-X.
^ Grant, Jaime; Mottet, Lisa; Tanis, Justin; Harrison, Jack; Herman, Jody; Keisling, Mara (2011). "Injustice at Every Turn" (PDF). National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2015. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
^ Burton, Nsenga (February 3, 2010). "Celebrating 100 Years of Black Cinema". The Root. Archived from the original on February 28, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021.
^ Abuku, NeNé (October 5, 2011). "What is Black Cinema? Have You Ever Wondered?". Grandmother Africa. Archived from the original on April 29, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021.
^ Hickmon, Gabrielle. "How you play Spades is how you play life". The Pudding. Archived from the original on June 5, 2023. Retrieved June 3, 2023.
^ Three African Clapping Games from Liberia – Africa Heartwood Project, August 9, 2011, archived from the original on June 4, 2023, retrieved June 3, 2023
^ "African American Museums Association: History". Archived from the original on October 16, 2007.
^ Natchez Museum Showcases African American Heritage Archived March 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Today in Mississippi. Retrieved March 2, 2016.
^ "African-American Museums, History, and the American Ideal" by John E. Fleming. Journal of American History, Vol. 81, No. 3, The Practice of American History: A Special Issue (December 1994), pp. 1020–1026.
^ Institution, Smithsonian. "National Museum of African American History and Culture". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved September 4, 2024.
^ Greenidge, C. W. W. (August 5, 2022), "Chattel Slavery Today", Slavery, London: Routledge, pp. 36–48, doi:10.4324/9781003309222-4, ISBN 978-1-003-30922-2, retrieved September 12, 2024
^ ^a ^b Smitherman, Geneva (2000). Talkin that Talk; Language, Culture, and Education in African America. Routledge. ISBN 9780203254394.
^ ^a ^b Berlin, Ira (2003). Many thousands gone: the first two centuries of slavery in North America (4. print ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00211-1.
^ Smitherman, Geneva (August 19, 1999). Talkin that Talk. doi:10.4324/9780203065419. ISBN 978-0-203-06541-9.
^ Gomez, Michael Angelo (1998). Exchanging our country marks: the transformation of African identities in the colonial and antebellum South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2387-3.
^ ^a ^b Holloway, Joseph (1990). "Africanisms in American Culture". Indiana University Press. p. [1]. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ Labov, William (1972). Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1051-4. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "African American Vernacular English".
^ Oubré, Alondra (1997). "Black English Vernacular (Ebonics) and Educability A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Language, Cognition, and Schooling". African American Web Connection. Archived from the original on June 14, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ "What lies ahead?". Do you speak American?. PBS. 2005. Archived from the original on September 14, 2007. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
^ Coulmas, Florian (2005). Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers' Choices. Cambridge University Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-397-80521-8. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
^ Dewey, William Joseph; Jẹgẹdẹ, Dele; Hackett, Rosalind I. J. (2003). The World Moves, We Follow: Celebrating African Art. Knoxville, Tenn.: Frank H. McClung Museum, The University of Tennessee. p. 23. ISBN 1-880174-05-7.
^ "Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity". National Museum of African Art. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
^ 1 Corinthians 11:5–6
^ "Fashion". Dickinson College. Archived from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "Tradition of Hats in the African-American Church". PBS. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Schwartzberg, Lauren (December 15, 2014). "The Ancient History of Grills". Archived from the original on April 23, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
^ "What's behind the sagging pants trend?". The Grio. September 15, 2009. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
^ Smith, Jay (December 28, 2011). "Air Jordans are more than a sneaker to some blacks". www.thegrio.com. Archived from the original on November 10, 2019. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
^ "30 Black Designers Who Shaped Fashion History - Black History Month African-American Fashi". Archived from the original on March 5, 2022. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
^ Mérida, Mateo. "Black Hair and Coerced Conformity". Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture. College of Charleston. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved June 1, 2022.
^ Byrd, Ayana; Tharps, Lori (January 12, 2002). Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-312-28322-9.
^ Washington, Darren Taylor (May 22, 2007). "Film Encourages Africans and African Americans to Cultivate Natural Hair". Voice of America. Archived from the original on July 12, 2007. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ McDonald, Ashley (April 7, 2008). "The Rise of Natural Hair". The Meter. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ ^a ^b "African American Hairstyles". Dickinson College. Archived from the original on July 31, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ ^a ^b Lacy, D. Aaron. "The Most Endangered Title VII Plaintiff?: African-American Males and Intersectional Claims" Archived May 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Nebraska Law Review, Vol. 86, No. 3, 2008, pp. 14–15. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
^ Green, Penelope. "Ranting; Stubble trouble" Archived June 13, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times Magazine, November 8, 2007. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
^ Jones, LaMont (April 23, 2007). "Black and beautiful: African-American women haven't had an easy time in the fashion world". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ ^a ^b "A Religious Portrait of African-Americans". pewforum.org. January 30, 2009. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
^ Weil, Julie Zauzmer (May 13, 2019). "The Bible was used to justify slavery. Then Africans made it their path to freedom". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Maffly-Kipp, Laurie. "African American Religion, Pt. I: To the Civil War". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on June 27, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.
^ Martin, Michel (December 9, 2018). "Slave Bible From The 1800s Omitted Key Passages That Could Incite Rebellion". NPR. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
^ "What Is the Slave Bible? Who Made it and Why?". www.christianity.com. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
^ Maffly-Kipp, Laurie F. (May 2001). "The Church in the Southern Black Community". University of North Carolina. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
^ "Amazing grace: 50 years of the Black church". Ebony. April 1995. Archived from the original on October 10, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Alkalimat, Abdul. Religion and the Black Church. Introduction to Afro-American Studies (6th ed.). Chicago: Twenty-first Century Books and Publications. Archived from the original on April 8, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ "Intiman Theater: Black Nativity". Intiman Theater. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
^ "Black Nativity". The National Center of African American Artists. 2004. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
^ Cheikh Anta Diop, Precolonial Black Africa, p. 163.
^ Sylvaine Diouf, Servants of Allah
^ ^a ^b Wood, Daniel B. (February 14, 2002). "America's black Muslims close a rift". Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on April 26, 2006.
^ ^a ^b Rachel Pomerance, Judaism Drawing More Black Americans Archived April 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 18, 2008.
^ Angell, Stephen W. (May 2001). "Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism". The North Star. 4 (2). University of Rochester. ISSN 1094-902X. Archived from the original on April 7, 2008. Retrieved October 19, 2007.
^ Niko Koppel, "Black Rabbi Reaches Out to Mainstream of His Faith" Archived July 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, March 16, 2008.
^ "Uncovering the Power of Hoodoo: An Ancestral Journey". Public Broadcasting Service. PBS. Archived from the original on May 25, 2023. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
^ Dale, Maryclaire (August 9, 2003). "African Religions Attracting Americans". African Traditional Religion. afgen.com. Archived from the original on June 7, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ "Hoodoo (spirituality)", Wikipedia, September 8, 2024, retrieved September 28, 2024
^ "List of ethnic groups of Africa", Wikipedia, September 8, 2024, retrieved September 28, 2024
^ "Research on Narrative Structures Among African Americans and West Africans", Understanding Storytelling Among African American Children, Routledge, pp. 24–41, April 8, 2014, doi:10.4324/9781410607102-10 (inactive November 1, 2024), ISBN 978-1-4106-0710-2, retrieved September 28, 2024{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
^ Dantley, Michael E. (October 2005). "African American Spirituality and Cornel West's Notions of Prophetic Pragmatism: Restructuring Educational Leadership in American Urban Schools". Educational Administration Quarterly. 41 (4): 651–674. doi:10.1177/0013161x04274274. ISSN 0013-161X. S2CID 145158005. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
^ Grimes, Ronald L. (2002). Deeply Into the Bone: Re-Inventing Rites of Passage. University of California Press. pp. 145–146. ISBN 0-520-23675-0. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ "'Jumping The Broom' a short history..." African American Registry. July 15, 2005. Archived from the original on October 27, 2006. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Parry, Tyler D. (2016). "The Holy Land of Matrimony: The Complex Legacy of the Broomstick Wedding in American History". American Studies. 55: 81–106. doi:10.1353/ams.2016.0063. S2CID 148110503. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved November 22, 2019 – via www.academia.edu.
^ Anyiam, Thony. "Who should jump the broom?". Anyiams Creations International. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
^ Mattis, Jacqueline S.; Jagers, Robert J. (2001). "A relational framework for the study of religiosity and spirituality in the lives of African Americans". Journal of Community Psychology. 29 (5): 519–539. doi:10.1002/jcop.1034. ISSN 0090-4392. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
^ "Death and Dying in the Black Experience: An Interview with Ronald K. Barrett, PhD". Education Development Center, Inc. September 25, 2001. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
^ "Jazz Funerals". PBS. January 30, 2004. Archived from the original on March 10, 2013. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
^ Hicks, Derek S. "An Unusual Feast: Gumbo and the Complex Brew of Black Religion". In Religion, Food, and Eating in North America, edited by Benjamin E. Zeller, Marie W. Dallam, Reid L. Neilson, and Nora L. Rubel, 134-154. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
^ Hicks, Derek S. "An Unusual Feast: Gumbo and the Complex Brew of Black Religion". In Religion, Food, and Eating in North America, edited by Benjamin E. Zeller, Marie W. Dallam, Reid L. Neilson, and Nora L. Rubel, 136. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
^ Holloway, Joseph E. (2005). Africanisms in American Culture. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-253-34479-4.
^ Baumann, Timothy (2009). "The Web of Cultural Identity: A Case Study of African-American Identity and "Soul Food"" (PDF). Tennessee Archaeology. 4 (1–2): 72. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 28, 2024. Retrieved May 24, 2024.
^ Holloway, Joseph (2005). Africanisms in American Culture. Indiana University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9780253217493. Archived from the original on August 4, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ "Notable African American chefs". Begley Library. Schenectady County Community College. Archived from the original on August 4, 2024. Retrieved June 2, 2024.
^ Henderson, Laretta (2007). "'Ebony Jr!' and 'Soul Food': The Construction of Middle-Class African American Identity through the Use of Traditional Southern Foodways". Melus Food in Multi-Ethnic Literatures. 32 (4): 81–82. JSTOR 30029833. Archived from the original on June 17, 2024. Retrieved June 17, 2024.
^ ^a ^b "A History of Soul Food". 20th Century Fox. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ Jonsson, Patrik (February 6, 2006). "Backstory: Southern discomfort food". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on October 12, 2006. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
^ Dorsey, Amber (October 3, 2015). "19 Soul Food Recipes That Are Almost As Good As Your Mom's". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
^ Godoy, Maria (February 15, 2013). "Fried Chicken And Waffles: The Dish The South Denied As Its Own?". NPR. Archived from the original on December 14, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
^ "Red (the flavor red) Kool-Aid named the official soul food drink". www.splendidtable.org. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2019.
^ Lipe, Mi Ae (September 10, 2015). Bounty from the Box: The CSA Farm Cookbook. Hillcrest Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9905011-0-7. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2020 – via Google Books.
^ "AFRICAN CROPS AND SLAVE CUISINES - SlaveRebellion.org". slaverebellion.info. Archived from the original on October 9, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ "African Americans and the Gypsies: a cultural relationship formed through hardships". September 27, 2013. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ Poe, Tracy N. (1999). "The Origins of Soul Food in Black Urban Identity: Chicago, 1915-1947". American Studies International. 37 (1): 4–33. JSTOR 41279638. Archived from the original on October 27, 2022. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
^ Hawkins, Odie (January 16, 2015). The Lil' Urban Gourmet Cookbook. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4969-6118-1. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2020 – via Google Books.
^ ^a ^b "Extra!: History of Black History Month". CNN. January 31, 2007. Archived from the original on June 18, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ "5 USC 6103". Cornell Law School. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ "Black Music Month". www.classbrain.com. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
^ "History of Juneteenth". juneteenth.com. 2005. Archived from the original on May 27, 2007. Retrieved March 15, 2007.
^ "What Does Juneteenth Celebrate? The History of the Holiday". PBS.
^ "The Times-Picayune 29 Nov 1885, page Page 3". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on May 27, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
^ "Historical Newspapers from 1700s-2000s". Newspapers.com. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
^ "Malcolm X's Birthday". University of Kansas Medical Center. 2003. Archived from the original on June 1, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.
^ "Fundamental Questions About Kwanzaa". OfficialKwanzaaWebsite.org. Archived from the original on June 11, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wattenberg, Laura (May 7, 2013). The Baby Name Wizard, Revised 3rd Edition: A Magical Method for Finding the Perfect Name for Your Baby. Harmony. ISBN 978-0-7704-3647-6.
^ Moskowitz, Clara (November 30, 2010). "Baby Names Reveal More About Parents Than Ever Before". Live Science. Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
^ "Finding Our History: African-American Names". Family Education. Archived from the original on May 17, 2007. Retrieved June 5, 2007.
^ Zax, David (August 25, 2008). "What's up with black names, anyway?". Salon.com. Archived from the original on October 22, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
^ Rosenkrantz, Linda; Satran, Paula Redmond (August 16, 2001). Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool--The Very Last Word on First Names. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-26757-6.
^ Lack, Evonne. "Popular African American Names". Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved February 12, 2014.
^ Conley, Dalton (March 10, 2010). "Raising E and Yo..." Psychology Today. Archived from the original on September 8, 2023. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
^ Berlin, Ira (December 31, 1998). Many Thousands Gone. Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674020825. ISBN 978-0-674-02082-5. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Rothman, Adam (February 1, 2018). "Daina Ramey Berry. The Price for Their Pound of Flesh: The Value of the Enslaved, from Womb to Grave, in the Building of a Nation". The American Historical Review. 123 (1): 226–227. doi:10.1093/ahr/123.1.226. ISSN 0002-8762. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ "John W. Blassingame. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press. 1972. Pp. xv, 262. $7.95". The American Historical Review. October 1973. doi:10.1086/ahr/78.4.1132-a. ISSN 1937-5239. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ "Herbert G. Gutman. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925. New York: Pantheon Books. 1976. Pp. xxviii, 664. $15.95". The American Historical Review. June 1977. doi:10.1086/ahr/82.3.744-a. ISSN 1937-5239. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Cox, Kiana; Tamir, Christine (April 14, 2022). "2. Family history, slavery and knowledge of Black history". Race Is Central to Identity for Black Americans and Affects How They Connect With Each Other (Report). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ Sowell, Thomas (2004). Affirmative Action around the World. Basic Books. pp. 115–156.^{[page range too broad]}
^ Wilder-Hamilton, Elonda R. (2002). "Uncovering the Truth: Understanding the Impact of American Culture on the Black Male Black Female Relationship". The Black Agenda. Archived from the original on April 7, 2008. Retrieved June 3, 2007.
^ Martin, Elmer P. (1980). The Black Extended Family. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-50797-1. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2020.
^ Mayorga-Gallo, Sarah (June 2018). "Whose Best Friend? Dogs and Racial Boundary Maintenance in a Multiracial Neighborhood". Sociological Forum. 33 (2): 505–528. doi:10.1111/socf.12425.
^ Fletcher, Michael A. (May 18, 2017). "50 years after Loving v. Virginia, more than 1 in 6 new marriages are interracial". Andscape. Archived from the original on July 9, 2022. Retrieved July 16, 2022.
^ "Living arrangements of children by race/Ethnicity, 1970-2022". Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. United States Department of Justice. Archived from the original on June 29, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ Hallam, Jennifer. "The Slave Experience: Family". Slavery and the Making of America. thirteen.org. WNET. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ "Black Families Severed by Slavery". Equal Justice Initiative. January 29, 2018. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ Holden, Vanessa M. (July 25, 2018). "Slavery and America's Legacy of Family Separation". AAIHS. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ Scott, Janny (March 23, 2008). "What Politicians Say When They Talk About Race". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2008. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ Bositis, David (2001). "The Black Vote in 2004" (PDF). The Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2007.
^ "Reality Check: Who voted for Donald Trump?". BBC News. November 9, 2016. Archived from the original on October 7, 2020. Retrieved October 6, 2020.
^ "Threat and Humiliation: Racial Profiling, Domestic Security, and Human Rights in the United States" (PDF). Amnesty International. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ Kansal, Tushar (2005). Mauer, Marc (ed.). "Racial Disparity in Sentencing: A Review of the Literature" (PDF). The Sentencing Project. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ "Poverty in the United States: Frequently Asked Questions". National Poverty Center. 2006. Archived from the original on May 23, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ Payne, January W. (December 21, 2004). "Dying for Basic Care". Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 10, 2012. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ Randall, Vernellia (March 25, 2007). "Institutional Racism". University of Dayton. Archived from the original on May 19, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
^ Richardson, Elaine and Gwendolyn Pough. "Hiphop Literacies and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture". Social Identities, vol. 22, no. 2, Mar. 2016, pp. 129–132.
^ Nelson, Angela M. "Black Popular Culture (US)". Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, edited by Patrick L. Mason, 2nd ed., vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2013, pp. 275–284.
^ Dodds, Sherril. "Hip Hop Battles and Facial Intertexts". Dance Research, vol. 34, no. 1, May 2016, pp. 63–83.
^ Kitwana, Bakari. The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis in African American Culture. New York: Basic Civitas, c. 2002, 2002.
^ Porfilio, Brad J.1, et al. "Ending the 'War against Youth:' Social Media and Hip-Hop Culture as Sites of Resistance, Transformation and (Re) Conceptualization". Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies (JCEPS), vol. 11, no. 4, November 2013, pp. 85–105.
^ DeFrantz, Thomas (2004). Dancing Revelations: Alvin Ailey's Embodiment of African American Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534835-4.
^ Hutchinson, Earl Ofari (December 14, 2004). "King would not have marched against gay marriage". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 2, 2012. Retrieved August 28, 2019. Gay-rights groups ... quot[ed] a public statement Coretta Scott King issued in 1996, in which she said that King would be a champion of gay rights if he were alive.
^ Sharpton Pledges Fight Against Homophobia Among Blacks Archived April 14, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Sun, August 3, 2005. "Rev. Sharpton has pledged to jumpstart a grassroots movement that would address the issue of homophobia in the black community. ... Al Sharpton was the only presidential candidate last year who unapologetically supported gay marriage, surprising critics who have tried to label him as a one-issue activist. ... Rev. Sharpton, who marched in the Gay Pride Parade this year for the first time, is perhaps the very person who can make a dent in the rampant homophobic views so entrenched in the African-American community."
^ Sandalow, Marc (July 16, 2003). "Democrats divided on gay marriage". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 2, 2012. Retrieved January 11, 2008.
^ Gecewicz, Claire (October 7, 2014). "Blacks are Lukewarm to Gay Marriage, but Most Say Businesses Most Provide Wedding Services to Gay Couples". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015. Retrieved December 2, 2015.
^ "Dis-membering Stonewall". HuffPost. June 26, 2012. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved August 8, 2023.
^ Platt-Boustan, Lia (May 2013). "RACIAL RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION IN AMERICAN CITIES" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research (19045): 1–29. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024 – via NBER.
^ Smitherman, Geneva. Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.
^ "GHETTO". Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved May 11, 2008. Kim Pearson
^ "Root shock: The consequences of African American dispossession" Journal of Urban Health. Springer, New York. Volume 78, Number 1, March 2001. doi:10.1093/jurban/78.1.72
^ Wachtel, Paul L. (1999). Race in the Mind of America: Breaking the Vicious Circle Between Blacks and Whites. New York: Routledge. p. 219. ISBN 0-415-92000-0.
^ Douglas A. Smith, "The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior", Crime and Justice, Vol. 8, Communities and Crime (1986), pp. 313–341.
^ Thabit, Walter; Frances Fox Piven (2003). How East New York Became a Ghetto. New York: New York University Press. p. 80. ISBN 0-8147-8267-1.
^ Rubin, Irene S. (1982). Running in the Red: The Political Dynamics of Urban Fiscal Stress. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-87395-564-1.
^ "Church Culture as a Strategy of Action in the Black Community", Mary Pattillo-McCoy, American Sociological Review, Vol. 63, No. 6 (December 1998), pp. 767–784.
^ "'Gathering the Spirit' at First Baptist Church: Spirituality as a Protective Factor in the Lives of African American Children" by Wendy L. Haight; Social Work, Vol. 43, 1998.
^ "Black architecture still standing, the Shotgun House" Archived October 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Great Buildings Collection on CD-ROM Kevin Matthews. African American Registry.
^ "African American Culture & Foods".
^ Wood, Molly (June 8, 2020). "From BlackPlanet to Black Twitter, the evolution of Black voices on social". Marketplace. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2021.
^ Auxier, Brooke (December 11, 2020). "Social media continue to be important political outlets for Black Americans". Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved August 8, 2023.
^ "Why Black Teens Are the Biggest Users of Instagram and Snapchat". AfroTech. June 12, 2018. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2021.
^ Maina, Beatrice (June 8, 2023). "Black Culture: 5 African American Cultural Values With Rich History". Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ Wesson, Stephen (August 16, 2022). "Education in Enslaved Communities | Teaching with the Library". Library of Congress Blogs. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
^ "Slavery and the Making of America". Thirteen. July 6, 2023. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved August 13, 2023.
^ "Education Steeped in African American Culture: Historically Black Colleges and Universities". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters with the Founding Fathers, Basic Civitas Books, 2010, p. 5. ISBN 9780465018505
^ For example, in the name of the Phyllis Wheatley YWCA in Washington, D.C., where "Phyllis" is etched into the name over its front door (as can be seen in photos Archived September 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine and corresponding text Archived September 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Peterson, Carla (1995). Doers of the Word: African-American Women Speakers and Writers in the North (1830–1880). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8135-2514-3.
^ Long, Carolyn Morrow (1997). "John the Conqueror: From Root-Charm to Commercial Product". Pharmacy in History. 39 (2): 47–48, 51. JSTOR 41111803.
^ Tyler, Varro (1991). "The Elusive History of High John the Conqueror Root". Pharmacy in History. 33 (4): 165–166. JSTOR 41112508. PMID 11612725. Archived from the original on March 21, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Hurston, Zora Neale (1981). The Sanctified Church. Berkeley. pp. 69–78. ISBN 9780913666449.
^ Gates, Henry Louis; Tatar, Maria (2017). The Annotated African American Folktales (The Annotated Books). Liveright. ISBN 9780871407566. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^ Powell, Timothy. "Ebos Landing". New Georgia Encyclopedia. University of Georgia Press. Archived from the original on August 26, 2021. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
^ Ogunleye, Tolagbe (1997). "African American Folklore: Its Role in Reconstructing African American History". Journal of Black Studies. 27 (4): 435–455. doi:10.1177/002193479702700401. ISSN 0021-9347. JSTOR 2784725. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

Bibliography

Hamilton, Marybeth: In Search of the Blues.
William Ferris; Give My Poor Heart Ease: Voices of the Mississippi Blues – The University of North Carolina Press; (2009) ISBN 978-0-8078-3325-4 (with CD and DVD)
William Ferris; Glenn Hinson The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 14: Folklife, University of North Carolina Press (2009) ISBN 978-0-8078-3346-9 (Cover :photo of James Son Thomas)
William Ferris; Blues From The Delta – Da Capo Press; revised edition (1988) ISBN 978-0-306-80327-7
Ted Gioia; Delta Blues: The Life and Times of the Mississippi Masters Who Revolutionized American Music – W. W. Norton & Company (2009) ISBN 978-0-393-33750-1
Sheldon Harris; Blues Who's Who Da Capo Press, 1979
Robert Nicholson; Mississippi Blues Today! Da Capo Press (1999) ISBN 978-0-306-80883-8
Robert Palmer; Deep Blues: A Musical and Cultural History of the Mississippi Delta – Penguin Reprint edition (1982) ISBN 978-0-14-006223-6
Frederic Ramsey Jr.; Been Here And Gone – 1st edition (1960) Rutgers University Press – London Cassell (UK) and New Brunswick, New Jersey; 2nd printing (1969) Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey; (2000) University of Georgia Press
Wiggins, David K. and Ryan A. Swanson, eds. Separate Games: African American Sport behind the Walls of Segregation. University of Arkansas Press, 2016. xvi, 272 pp.
Charles Reagan Wilson, William Ferris, Ann J. Adadie; Encyclopedia of Southern Culture (1656 pp) University of North Carolina Press; 2nd edition (1989) – ISBN 978-0-8078-1823-7

Primary sources

Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39, 1917) online

[1] "Black is Beautiful: The Emergence of Black Culture and Identity in the 60s and 70s". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 7, 2023.

[2] "Black History and Culture". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved March 7, 2023.

[3] "The Montgomery Advertiser 20 Feb 2020, page D6". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved March 8, 2023.

[4] Brown, Angela (October 2013). "Cultural Perspective on African American Culture" (PDF). The International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies. 1 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2023 – via AIAC.

[5] "The News and Observer 22 Jan 1997, page 12". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2023. Retrieved March 10, 2023.

[6] "Journal and Courier 21 Sep 2008, page 13". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved August 14, 2023.

[7] "Black is Beautiful: The Emergence of Black Culture and Identity in the 60s and 70s". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Archived from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved August 14, 2023.

[8] Mcmanus, Melanie (May 27, 2021). "Dancing at the new National Museum of African American Music in Nashville". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved December 21, 2021.

[9] White, Constance. "How African Americans Have Influenced Style and Culture". Time. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved December 21, 2021.

[10] Reynolds, Marcellas (2019). Supreme Models Iconic Black Women Who Revolutionized Fashion. ABRAMS. ISBN 9781683356622. Archived from the original on April 23, 2023. Retrieved March 18, 2023.

[11] Washington, Harriet A. (2008). Medical apartheid: the dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present. New York, NY: Anchor books. ISBN 978-0-7679-1547-2.

[12] Rediker, Marcus (2008). The slave ship: a human history. A Penguin book History African-American studies. New York, NY: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311425-3.

[13] Woodward, C. Vann (2002). The strange career of Jim Crow (Commemorative ed.). Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514689-9.

[14] Anderson, James D. (1995). The education of Blacks in the South, 1860 - 1935 (Nachdr. ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4221-8.

[15] Lowery, Wesley (2016). They can't kill us all: the story of the struggle for Black lives (First Back Bay paperback ed.). New York, NY: Back Bay Books : Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-31249-3. OCLC 968310784. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[16] Baradaran, Mehrsa (2019). The color of money: black banks and the racial wealth gap (First Harvard University Press paperback ed.). Cambridge London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-23747-6.

[17] Alexander, Michelle (2012). The new Jim Crow: mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness (Revised paperback ed.). New York: New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-643-8.

[18] Latimore, David (August 27, 2024). "Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Black Church: This Is Our Story, This Is Our Song". Homiletic. 49 (1): 72–73. doi:10.15695/hmltc.v49i1.5632. ISSN 2152-6923. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[19] "In Search of the Black Fantastic: Politics and Popular Culture in the Post Civil-Rights Era (review)". American Studies. 50 (3–4): 151–152. September 2009. doi:10.1353/ams.2009.0009. ISSN 2153-6856.

[20] "High on the Hog: A Culinary Journey from Africa to America". Science. 377 (6614): 1497. September 30, 2022. Bibcode:2022Sci...377.1497.. doi:10.1126/science.ade8448. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 36173834. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[21] Tipton-Martin, Toni (September 2014). "Breaking the Jemima Code: The Legacy of African American Cookbooks". Ecotone. 10 (1): 116–120. doi:10.1353/ect.2014.0042. ISSN 2165-2651.

[22] Hunter, Tera W. (April 24, 2017). Bound in Wedlock. Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674979208. ISBN 978-0-674-97920-8.

[23] Akubue-Brice, Dorothy A. Smith; Dunaway, Wilma A.; Dunaway, Wilma A. (August 1, 2005). "The African-American Family in Slavery and Emancipation". The Journal of Southern History. 71 (3): 696. doi:10.2307/27648852. ISSN 0022-4642. JSTOR 27648852.

[24] Sanders, Joshunda (May 31, 2018), "Coates, Ta-Nehisi", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.39161, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved September 4, 2024

[25] Manning, Patrick (September 18, 2023), "Education Across the African Diaspora, 1500–2020", Education Across the African Diaspora, London: Routledge, pp. 9–18, doi:10.4324/9781032616315-2, ISBN 978-1-032-61631-5, retrieved September 4, 2024

[26] Griffin, Iverson; Gilroy, Paul (May 1995). "The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness". Contemporary Sociology. 24 (3): 399. doi:10.2307/2076536. ISSN 0094-3061. JSTOR 2076536. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[27] SERNETT, MILTON C., ed. (January 17, 2000). African American Religious History. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11smnkh. ISBN 978-0-8223-9603-1. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[28] Morris, Aldon (July 13, 2021). "From Civil Rights to Black Lives Matter". Scientific American. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved March 8, 2023.

[Gomez2-29] Gomez, Michael Angelo (1998). Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South. University of North Carolina Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-8078-6171-5.

[30] "The Explosion of Culture and Arts During the Harlem Renaissance". TheCollector. October 7, 2022. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2023.

[31] "Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (review)". Alabama Review. 62 (3): 212–213. July 2009. doi:10.1353/ala.2009.0020. ISSN 2166-9961.

[32] Du Bois, W. E. B. (May 28, 2009). Edwards, Brent Hayes (ed.). The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/owc/9780199555833.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-955583-3. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[33] Seigel, Micol (February 2011). "Patrick Manning . The African Diaspora: A History through Culture . (Columbia Studies in International and Global History.) New York : Columbia University Press . 2009 . Pp. xxii, 394. $29.95". The American Historical Review. 116 (1): 251–252. doi:10.1086/ahr.116.1.251. ISSN 0002-8762. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[34] Harris, Robert L.; Huggins, Nathan Irvin (October 1978). "Black Odyssey: The Afro-American Ordeal in Slavery". The American Historical Review. 83 (4): 1095. doi:10.2307/1867827. ISSN 0002-8762. JSTOR 1867827. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[35] Avila, Eric (August 23, 2018). "American Cultural History: A Very Short Introduction". Very Short Introductions. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780190200589.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-020058-9.

[36] "Higginbotham, A(loysius) Leon, Jr.", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, April 7, 2005, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.41656, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, archived from the original on September 7, 2024, retrieved September 4, 2024

[37] Love, Ms Bathsheba. "Murrell Library Research Guides: African-Americans & the Black Experience: African-American Identity & Culture". libguides.moval.edu. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.

[38] Salas, Antonio; Carracedo, Angel; Richards, Martin; Macaulay, Vincent (October 2005). "Charting the ancestry of African Americans". American Journal of Human Genetics. 77 (4): 676–680. doi:10.1086/491675. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1275617. PMID 16175514.

[39] Tamir, Christine (January 27, 2022). "Key findings about Black immigrants in the U.S." Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on September 5, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.

[40] Adida, Claire L.; Robinson, Amanda Lea (2023). "Why (some) immigrants resist assimilation: US racism and the African immigrant experience". Quarterly Journal of Political Science. 18 (3): 295–338. doi:10.1561/100.00021091. ISSN 1554-0626. PMC 10706603. PMID 38077161.

[41] Price, Richard (1996). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Anchor Books. pp. 1–33.

[42] "Black Joy: Resistance, Resilience and Reclamation". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved October 24, 2024.

[43] "Digital History". www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.

[44] "The Cincinnati Enquirer 01 Mar 2000, page Page 12". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on June 20, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2023.

[slave_culture-45] "African American Voices: Slave Culture". University of Houston. June 2, 2007. Archived from the original on May 7, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[46] Geneviève Fabre, Robert G. O'Meally (1994). History and Memory in African-American Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 12–208.

[AfricanMigrationNYC-47] Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura (January 13, 2023). "African and Invisible: The Other New York Migrant Crisis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2023.

[oral-48] Papa, Maggie; Gerber, Amy; Mohamed, Abeer. "African American Culture through Oral Tradition". George Washington University. Archived from the original on May 27, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2007.

[49] "Editor's Analysis of "The Wonderful Tar Baby Story"". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on October 17, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.

[50] "John Henry: The Steel Driving Man". ibiblio. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.

[51] "Uncle Remus". UncleRemus.com. 2003. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 10, 2007.

[52] "EDITOR'S PREFACES". UncleRemus.com. 2003. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 10, 2007.

[53] Raboteau, Albert J. (1995). A Fire in the Bones: Reflections on African-American Religious History. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-0933-4. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 7, 2007.

[54] Fabre and O'Meally, pp. 219–244.

[55] Dunbar, EVE E. (January 1, 2013). "Becoming American through Ethnographic Writing". In DUNBAR, EVE E. (ed.). Black Regions of the Imagination. African American Writers between the Nation and the World. Temple University Press. pp. 16–57. ISBN 978-1-4399-0942-3. JSTOR j.ctt14bt4hc.6.

[Michael_L._Hecht_2003_pp._3-245-56] Michael L. Hecht, Ronald L. Jackson, Sidney A. Ribeau (2003). African American Communication: Exploring Identity and Culture? Routledge. pp. 3–245.

[57] "The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism. Henry Louis Gates, Jr". Modern Philology. 88 (2): 224–226. November 1990. doi:10.1086/391861. ISSN 0026-8232. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[58] Miazga, Mark (December 15, 1998). "The Spoken Word Movement of 1990s". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.

[harlem-59] Johnson, William H. "The Harlem Renaissance". fatherryan.org. Archived from the original on June 1, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[60] "Black Power". King Encyclopedia. Stanford University. Archived from the original on December 4, 2013. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[61] "Black Power". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on February 27, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[62] "Nikki Giovanni". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[63] "Black Aesthetic". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[64] Stewart, Earl L. (August 1, 1998). African American Music: An Introduction. Prentice Hall International. pp. 5–15. ISBN 0-02-860294-3.

[65] "The History of African American Music | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on May 8, 2019. Retrieved September 6, 2020.

[66] "Hambone | African/African-American Culture". PBS LearningMedia. Archived from the original on March 26, 2023. Retrieved March 25, 2023.

[Bond-67] Bond, Julian; Wilson, Sondra Kathryn, eds. (2000). Lift Every Voice and Sing: A Celebration of the Negro National Anthem; 100 Years, 100 Voices. Random House. ISBN 0-679-46315-1. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[68] "Lift Every Voice and Sing". National Public Radio. February 4, 2002. Archived from the original on May 28, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[69] McIntyre, Dean B. (January 20, 2000). "Lift Every Voice -- 100 Years Old". General Board of Discipleship. Archived from the original on May 7, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[70] The Story of African American Music.

[71] "How Black Music Changed History". Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[72] Southern., Eileen (1997). The Music of Black Americans: A History (3rd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97141-4.

[73] "Leading music genres among African Americans U.S. 2018". Statista. Archived from the original on May 23, 2024. Retrieved September 4, 2024.

[74] Wood, Peter H. ""Gimmie de Knee Bone Bent":African Body Language and the Evolution of American Dance Forms". Free to Dance: Behind the Dance. PBS. Archived from the original on August 14, 2007. Retrieved October 30, 2007.

[streetswing-75] "Cakewalk Dance". Streetswing Dance History Archive. Archived from the original on June 11, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.

[Ballroom,_Boogie_2009._pp._19-23-76] Ballroom, Boogie, Shimmy Sham, Shake: A Social and Popular Dance Reader. Julie Malnig. Edition: illustrated. University of Illinois Press. 2009, pp. 19–23.

[77] "African American Dance, a history!". The African American Registry. Archived from the original on May 5, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[78] Bragin, Naomi Elizabeth. "Black Street Movement: Turf Dance, YAK Films and Politics of Sitation in Oakland, California". ["Collected Work: Dance and the social city. Birmingham, Ala: Society of Dance History Scholars, 2012, pp. 51–57.

[79] "Shot and Captured". Tdr-The Drama Review-The Journal of Performance Studies, vol. 58, no. 2, n.d., pp. 99–114.

[80] "From Streets To Stage, Two Dance Worlds See Harmonization And Chaos" Archived November 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Weekend Edition Saturday, January 23, 2016. Literature Resource Center.

[81] Simms, Renee. "Immortal Dance in the Age of Michael Brown". Southwest Review, no. 1, 2017, p. 74.

[82] "Conscious Quiet as a Mode of Black Visual Culture". Black Camera: The New Series, vol. 8, no. 1, Fall 2016, pp. 146–154.

[83] "An Abridged History of Twerk Culture". playboy.com. Archived from the original on July 25, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.

[84] Patton., Sharon F. (1998). African-American Art. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-284213-7. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[85] Powell, Richard (April 2005). "African American Art". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-465-00071-1. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[86] "Harriet Powers". Early Women Masters. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[87] "The Quilts of Gees Bend". Tinwood Ventures. 2004. Archived from the original on February 22, 2004. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[88] Southern, Eileen. Music of Negro Americans: A History. New York: Norton, 1997, pp. 404–409.

[89] "Aaron Douglas (1898–1979)". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 13, 2006. Retrieved October 4, 2007.

[90] "Augusta Fells Savage (1882–1962)". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 13, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.

[91] "James Van Der Zee Biography (1886–1983)". biography.com. Archived from the original on July 20, 2012. Retrieved October 4, 2007.

[92] Hall, Ken (2004). "The Highwaymen". McElreath Printing & Publishing, Inc. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[93] "Updates & Snapshots 2006". James Gibson. 2000. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[94] Painting by a Florida Highwayman Archived January 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine

[95] Smith, Roberta (September 9, 2007). "Solo Museum Shows: Not the Usual Suspects". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. Retrieved November 6, 2007.

[96] "African Americans in the Visual Arts". Long Island University. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[Sattes-97] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Sattes, Corey A. H.; Platt, Sarah E. "Rouletted Colonoware African-Style Pottery In Charleston, South Carolina" (PDF). Society For American Archaeology. SAA Archaeological Record. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved May 12, 2021.

[Marcoux-98] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Marcoux, Jon; et al. (January 2020). "Preliminary Identification of African-Style Rouletted Colonoware in the Colonial South Carolina Lowcountry". Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage. 9 (1): 1. doi:10.1080/21619441.2020.1840837. S2CID 228856494. Archived from the original on April 10, 2022. Retrieved May 12, 2021.

[Joseph-99] Joseph, J. W. (2011). "... All of Cross'—African Potters, Marks, and Meanings in the Folk Pottery of the Edgefield District, South Carolina". Historical Archaeology. 45 (2): 134–155. doi:10.1007/BF03376836. JSTOR 23070092. S2CID 160445944. Archived from the original on April 10, 2022. Retrieved May 12, 2021.

[100] Ward, Jerry W. Jr. (April 7, 1998). M. Graham (ed.). To Shatter Innocence: Teaching African American Poetry. Teaching African American Literature. Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 0-415-91695-X.

[:0-101] Grant, Jaime; Mottet, Lisa; Tanis, Justin; Harrison, Jack; Herman, Jody; Keisling, Mara (2011). "Injustice at Every Turn" (PDF). National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2015. Retrieved October 30, 2016.

[:2-102] Burton, Nsenga (February 3, 2010). "Celebrating 100 Years of Black Cinema". The Root. Archived from the original on February 28, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021.

[103] Abuku, NeNé (October 5, 2011). "What is Black Cinema? Have You Ever Wondered?". Grandmother Africa. Archived from the original on April 29, 2021. Retrieved March 6, 2021.

[104] Hickmon, Gabrielle. "How you play Spades is how you play life". The Pudding. Archived from the original on June 5, 2023. Retrieved June 3, 2023.

[105] Three African Clapping Games from Liberia – Africa Heartwood Project, August 9, 2011, archived from the original on June 4, 2023, retrieved June 3, 2023

[106] "African American Museums Association: History". Archived from the original on October 16, 2007.

[107] Natchez Museum Showcases African American Heritage Archived March 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Today in Mississippi. Retrieved March 2, 2016.

[108] "African-American Museums, History, and the American Ideal" by John E. Fleming. Journal of American History, Vol. 81, No. 3, The Practice of American History: A Special Issue (December 1994), pp. 1020–1026.

[109] Institution, Smithsonian. "National Museum of African American History and Culture". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved September 4, 2024.

[110] Greenidge, C. W. W. (August 5, 2022), "Chattel Slavery Today", Slavery, London: Routledge, pp. 36–48, doi:10.4324/9781003309222-4, ISBN 978-1-003-30922-2, retrieved September 12, 2024

[:3-111] Smitherman, Geneva (2000). Talkin that Talk; Language, Culture, and Education in African America. Routledge. ISBN 9780203254394.

[:4-112] Berlin, Ira (2003). Many thousands gone: the first two centuries of slavery in North America (4. print ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00211-1.

[113] Smitherman, Geneva (August 19, 1999). Talkin that Talk. doi:10.4324/9780203065419. ISBN 978-0-203-06541-9.

[114] Gomez, Michael Angelo (1998). Exchanging our country marks: the transformation of African identities in the colonial and antebellum South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2387-3.

[auto-115] Holloway, Joseph (1990). "Africanisms in American Culture". Indiana University Press. p. [1]. Retrieved February 6, 2023.

[Labov-116] Labov, William (1972). Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1051-4. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[117] "African American Vernacular English".

[118] Oubré, Alondra (1997). "Black English Vernacular (Ebonics) and Educability A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Language, Cognition, and Schooling". African American Web Connection. Archived from the original on June 14, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[119] "What lies ahead?". Do you speak American?. PBS. 2005. Archived from the original on September 14, 2007. Retrieved October 30, 2007.

[120] Coulmas, Florian (2005). Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers' Choices. Cambridge University Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-397-80521-8. Retrieved October 30, 2007.

[121] Dewey, William Joseph; Jẹgẹdẹ, Dele; Hackett, Rosalind I. J. (2003). The World Moves, We Follow: Celebrating African Art. Knoxville, Tenn.: Frank H. McClung Museum, The University of Tennessee. p. 23. ISBN 1-880174-05-7.

[kente-122] "Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity". National Museum of African Art. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007. Retrieved May 17, 2007.

[123] 1 Corinthians 11:5–6

[124] "Fashion". Dickinson College. Archived from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[125] "Tradition of Hats in the African-American Church". PBS. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[126] Schwartzberg, Lauren (December 15, 2014). "The Ancient History of Grills". Archived from the original on April 23, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2019.

[127] "What's behind the sagging pants trend?". The Grio. September 15, 2009. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2019.

[128] Smith, Jay (December 28, 2011). "Air Jordans are more than a sneaker to some blacks". www.thegrio.com. Archived from the original on November 10, 2019. Retrieved November 10, 2019.

[129] "30 Black Designers Who Shaped Fashion History - Black History Month African-American Fashi". Archived from the original on March 5, 2022. Retrieved March 5, 2022.

[130] Mérida, Mateo. "Black Hair and Coerced Conformity". Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture. College of Charleston. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved June 1, 2022.

[131] Byrd, Ayana; Tharps, Lori (January 12, 2002). Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-312-28322-9.

[132] Washington, Darren Taylor (May 22, 2007). "Film Encourages Africans and African Americans to Cultivate Natural Hair". Voice of America. Archived from the original on July 12, 2007. Retrieved June 24, 2008.

[133] McDonald, Ashley (April 7, 2008). "The Rise of Natural Hair". The Meter. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved June 24, 2008.

[dickinson-134] "African American Hairstyles". Dickinson College. Archived from the original on July 31, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[Lacy-135] Lacy, D. Aaron. "The Most Endangered Title VII Plaintiff?: African-American Males and Intersectional Claims" Archived May 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Nebraska Law Review, Vol. 86, No. 3, 2008, pp. 14–15. Retrieved November 8, 2007.

[136] Green, Penelope. "Ranting; Stubble trouble" Archived June 13, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times Magazine, November 8, 2007. Retrieved November 8, 2007.

[137] Jones, LaMont (April 23, 2007). "Black and beautiful: African-American women haven't had an easy time in the fashion world". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[Pew_Forum-138] "A Religious Portrait of African-Americans". pewforum.org. January 30, 2009. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved October 22, 2017.

[139] Weil, Julie Zauzmer (May 13, 2019). "The Bible was used to justify slavery. Then Africans made it their path to freedom". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2023.

[aa_religion-140] Maffly-Kipp, Laurie. "African American Religion, Pt. I: To the Civil War". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on June 27, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.

[141] Martin, Michel (December 9, 2018). "Slave Bible From The 1800s Omitted Key Passages That Could Incite Rebellion". NPR. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 17, 2023.

[142] "What Is the Slave Bible? Who Made it and Why?". www.christianity.com. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 17, 2023.

[143] Maffly-Kipp, Laurie F. (May 2001). "The Church in the Southern Black Community". University of North Carolina. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved May 21, 2007.

[144] "Amazing grace: 50 years of the Black church". Ebony. April 1995. Archived from the original on October 10, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[eblackstudies-145] Alkalimat, Abdul. Religion and the Black Church. Introduction to Afro-American Studies (6th ed.). Chicago: Twenty-first Century Books and Publications. Archived from the original on April 8, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[146] "Intiman Theater: Black Nativity". Intiman Theater. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved October 13, 2007.

[147] "Black Nativity". The National Center of African American Artists. 2004. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 13, 2007.

[148] Cheikh Anta Diop, Precolonial Black Africa, p. 163.

[149] Sylvaine Diouf, Servants of Allah

[csm-150] Wood, Daniel B. (February 14, 2002). "America's black Muslims close a rift". Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on April 26, 2006.

[aaa-151] Rachel Pomerance, Judaism Drawing More Black Americans Archived April 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 18, 2008.

[northstar-152] Angell, Stephen W. (May 2001). "Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism". The North Star. 4 (2). University of Rochester. ISSN 1094-902X. Archived from the original on April 7, 2008. Retrieved October 19, 2007.

[153] Niko Koppel, "Black Rabbi Reaches Out to Mainstream of His Faith" Archived July 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, March 16, 2008.

[154] "Uncovering the Power of Hoodoo: An Ancestral Journey". Public Broadcasting Service. PBS. Archived from the original on May 25, 2023. Retrieved May 25, 2023.

[155] Dale, Maryclaire (August 9, 2003). "African Religions Attracting Americans". African Traditional Religion. afgen.com. Archived from the original on June 7, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[156] "Hoodoo (spirituality)", Wikipedia, September 8, 2024, retrieved September 28, 2024

[157] "List of ethnic groups of Africa", Wikipedia, September 8, 2024, retrieved September 28, 2024

[158] "Research on Narrative Structures Among African Americans and West Africans", Understanding Storytelling Among African American Children, Routledge, pp. 24–41, April 8, 2014, doi:10.4324/9781410607102-10 (inactive November 1, 2024), ISBN 978-1-4106-0710-2, retrieved September 28, 2024{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)

[159] Dantley, Michael E. (October 2005). "African American Spirituality and Cornel West's Notions of Prophetic Pragmatism: Restructuring Educational Leadership in American Urban Schools". Educational Administration Quarterly. 41 (4): 651–674. doi:10.1177/0013161x04274274. ISSN 0013-161X. S2CID 145158005. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved May 31, 2022.

[160] Grimes, Ronald L. (2002). Deeply Into the Bone: Re-Inventing Rites of Passage. University of California Press. pp. 145–146. ISBN 0-520-23675-0. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[161] "'Jumping The Broom' a short history..." African American Registry. July 15, 2005. Archived from the original on October 27, 2006. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[162] Parry, Tyler D. (2016). "The Holy Land of Matrimony: The Complex Legacy of the Broomstick Wedding in American History". American Studies. 55: 81–106. doi:10.1353/ams.2016.0063. S2CID 148110503. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved November 22, 2019 – via www.academia.edu.

[163] Anyiam, Thony. "Who should jump the broom?". Anyiams Creations International. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.

[164] Mattis, Jacqueline S.; Jagers, Robert J. (2001). "A relational framework for the study of religiosity and spirituality in the lives of African Americans". Journal of Community Psychology. 29 (5): 519–539. doi:10.1002/jcop.1034. ISSN 0090-4392. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved May 31, 2022.

[Barrett-165] "Death and Dying in the Black Experience: An Interview with Ronald K. Barrett, PhD". Education Development Center, Inc. September 25, 2001. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 13, 2007.

[166] "Jazz Funerals". PBS. January 30, 2004. Archived from the original on March 10, 2013. Retrieved October 13, 2007.

[167] Hicks, Derek S. "An Unusual Feast: Gumbo and the Complex Brew of Black Religion". In Religion, Food, and Eating in North America, edited by Benjamin E. Zeller, Marie W. Dallam, Reid L. Neilson, and Nora L. Rubel, 134-154. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.

[168] Hicks, Derek S. "An Unusual Feast: Gumbo and the Complex Brew of Black Religion". In Religion, Food, and Eating in North America, edited by Benjamin E. Zeller, Marie W. Dallam, Reid L. Neilson, and Nora L. Rubel, 136. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.

[169] Holloway, Joseph E. (2005). Africanisms in American Culture. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-253-34479-4.

[170] Baumann, Timothy (2009). "The Web of Cultural Identity: A Case Study of African-American Identity and "Soul Food"" (PDF). Tennessee Archaeology. 4 (1–2): 72. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 28, 2024. Retrieved May 24, 2024.

[171] Holloway, Joseph (2005). Africanisms in American Culture. Indiana University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9780253217493. Archived from the original on August 4, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[172] "Notable African American chefs". Begley Library. Schenectady County Community College. Archived from the original on August 4, 2024. Retrieved June 2, 2024.

[173] Henderson, Laretta (2007). "'Ebony Jr!' and 'Soul Food': The Construction of Middle-Class African American Identity through the Use of Traditional Southern Foodways". Melus Food in Multi-Ethnic Literatures. 32 (4): 81–82. JSTOR 30029833. Archived from the original on June 17, 2024. Retrieved June 17, 2024.

[A_History_of_Soul_Food-174] "A History of Soul Food". 20th Century Fox. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[175] Jonsson, Patrik (February 6, 2006). "Backstory: Southern discomfort food". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on October 12, 2006. Retrieved June 2, 2007.

[176] Dorsey, Amber (October 3, 2015). "19 Soul Food Recipes That Are Almost As Good As Your Mom's". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2019.

[177] Godoy, Maria (February 15, 2013). "Fried Chicken And Waffles: The Dish The South Denied As Its Own?". NPR. Archived from the original on December 14, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2019.

[178] "Red (the flavor red) Kool-Aid named the official soul food drink". www.splendidtable.org. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2019.

[179] Lipe, Mi Ae (September 10, 2015). Bounty from the Box: The CSA Farm Cookbook. Hillcrest Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9905011-0-7. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2020 – via Google Books.

[180] "AFRICAN CROPS AND SLAVE CUISINES - SlaveRebellion.org". slaverebellion.info. Archived from the original on October 9, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2020.

[181] "African Americans and the Gypsies: a cultural relationship formed through hardships". September 27, 2013. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved September 6, 2020.

[182] Poe, Tracy N. (1999). "The Origins of Soul Food in Black Urban Identity: Chicago, 1915-1947". American Studies International. 37 (1): 4–33. JSTOR 41279638. Archived from the original on October 27, 2022. Retrieved September 6, 2020.

[183] Hawkins, Odie (January 16, 2015). The Lil' Urban Gourmet Cookbook. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4969-6118-1. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2020 – via Google Books.

[student-184] "Extra!: History of Black History Month". CNN. January 31, 2007. Archived from the original on June 18, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[185] "5 USC 6103". Cornell Law School. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[186] "Black Music Month". www.classbrain.com. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2017.

[187] "History of Juneteenth". juneteenth.com. 2005. Archived from the original on May 27, 2007. Retrieved March 15, 2007.

[188] "What Does Juneteenth Celebrate? The History of the Holiday". PBS.

[189] "The Times-Picayune 29 Nov 1885, page Page 3". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on May 27, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2023.

[190] "Historical Newspapers from 1700s-2000s". Newspapers.com. Retrieved June 20, 2023.

[191] "Malcolm X's Birthday". University of Kansas Medical Center. 2003. Archived from the original on June 1, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.

[192] "Fundamental Questions About Kwanzaa". OfficialKwanzaaWebsite.org. Archived from the original on June 11, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.

[Baby_Name_Wizard-193] Wattenberg, Laura (May 7, 2013). The Baby Name Wizard, Revised 3rd Edition: A Magical Method for Finding the Perfect Name for Your Baby. Harmony. ISBN 978-0-7704-3647-6.

[individuality-194] Moskowitz, Clara (November 30, 2010). "Baby Names Reveal More About Parents Than Ever Before". Live Science. Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2014.

[195] "Finding Our History: African-American Names". Family Education. Archived from the original on May 17, 2007. Retrieved June 5, 2007.

[salon-196] Zax, David (August 25, 2008). "What's up with black names, anyway?". Salon.com. Archived from the original on October 22, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2014.

[rosenkrantz-197] Rosenkrantz, Linda; Satran, Paula Redmond (August 16, 2001). Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool--The Very Last Word on First Names. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-26757-6.

[198] Lack, Evonne. "Popular African American Names". Archived from the original on February 22, 2014. Retrieved February 12, 2014.

[Conley-199] Conley, Dalton (March 10, 2010). "Raising E and Yo..." Psychology Today. Archived from the original on September 8, 2023. Retrieved April 16, 2014.

[200] Berlin, Ira (December 31, 1998). Many Thousands Gone. Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674020825. ISBN 978-0-674-02082-5. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[201] Rothman, Adam (February 1, 2018). "Daina Ramey Berry. The Price for Their Pound of Flesh: The Value of the Enslaved, from Womb to Grave, in the Building of a Nation". The American Historical Review. 123 (1): 226–227. doi:10.1093/ahr/123.1.226. ISSN 0002-8762. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[202] "John W. Blassingame. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press. 1972. Pp. xv, 262. $7.95". The American Historical Review. October 1973. doi:10.1086/ahr/78.4.1132-a. ISSN 1937-5239. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[203] "Herbert G. Gutman. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925. New York: Pantheon Books. 1976. Pp. xxviii, 664. $15.95". The American Historical Review. June 1977. doi:10.1086/ahr/82.3.744-a. ISSN 1937-5239. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[204] Cox, Kiana; Tamir, Christine (April 14, 2022). "2. Family history, slavery and knowledge of Black history". Race Is Central to Identity for Black Americans and Affects How They Connect With Each Other (Report). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[205] Sowell, Thomas (2004). Affirmative Action around the World. Basic Books. pp. 115–156.^{[page range too broad]}

[206] Wilder-Hamilton, Elonda R. (2002). "Uncovering the Truth: Understanding the Impact of American Culture on the Black Male Black Female Relationship". The Black Agenda. Archived from the original on April 7, 2008. Retrieved June 3, 2007.

[207] Martin, Elmer P. (1980). The Black Extended Family. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-50797-1. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved October 15, 2020.

[208] Mayorga-Gallo, Sarah (June 2018). "Whose Best Friend? Dogs and Racial Boundary Maintenance in a Multiracial Neighborhood". Sociological Forum. 33 (2): 505–528. doi:10.1111/socf.12425.

[209] Fletcher, Michael A. (May 18, 2017). "50 years after Loving v. Virginia, more than 1 in 6 new marriages are interracial". Andscape. Archived from the original on July 9, 2022. Retrieved July 16, 2022.

[210] "Living arrangements of children by race/Ethnicity, 1970-2022". Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. United States Department of Justice. Archived from the original on June 29, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[211] Hallam, Jennifer. "The Slave Experience: Family". Slavery and the Making of America. thirteen.org. WNET. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[212] "Black Families Severed by Slavery". Equal Justice Initiative. January 29, 2018. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[213] Holden, Vanessa M. (July 25, 2018). "Slavery and America's Legacy of Family Separation". AAIHS. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[214] Scott, Janny (March 23, 2008). "What Politicians Say When They Talk About Race". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2008. Retrieved June 24, 2008.

[215] Bositis, David (2001). "The Black Vote in 2004" (PDF). The Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2007.

[216] "Reality Check: Who voted for Donald Trump?". BBC News. November 9, 2016. Archived from the original on October 7, 2020. Retrieved October 6, 2020.

[217] "Threat and Humiliation: Racial Profiling, Domestic Security, and Human Rights in the United States" (PDF). Amnesty International. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[218] Kansal, Tushar (2005). Mauer, Marc (ed.). "Racial Disparity in Sentencing: A Review of the Literature" (PDF). The Sentencing Project. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[219] "Poverty in the United States: Frequently Asked Questions". National Poverty Center. 2006. Archived from the original on May 23, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[220] Payne, January W. (December 21, 2004). "Dying for Basic Care". Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 10, 2012. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[221] Randall, Vernellia (March 25, 2007). "Institutional Racism". University of Dayton. Archived from the original on May 19, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.

[222] Richardson, Elaine and Gwendolyn Pough. "Hiphop Literacies and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture". Social Identities, vol. 22, no. 2, Mar. 2016, pp. 129–132.

[223] Nelson, Angela M. "Black Popular Culture (US)". Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, edited by Patrick L. Mason, 2nd ed., vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2013, pp. 275–284.

[224] Dodds, Sherril. "Hip Hop Battles and Facial Intertexts". Dance Research, vol. 34, no. 1, May 2016, pp. 63–83.

[225] Kitwana, Bakari. The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis in African American Culture. New York: Basic Civitas, c. 2002, 2002.

[226] Porfilio, Brad J.1, et al. "Ending the 'War against Youth:' Social Media and Hip-Hop Culture as Sites of Resistance, Transformation and (Re) Conceptualization". Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies (JCEPS), vol. 11, no. 4, November 2013, pp. 85–105.

[DeFrantz,_Thomas_2004-227] DeFrantz, Thomas (2004). Dancing Revelations: Alvin Ailey's Embodiment of African American Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534835-4.

[228] Hutchinson, Earl Ofari (December 14, 2004). "King would not have marched against gay marriage". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 2, 2012. Retrieved August 28, 2019. Gay-rights groups ... quot[ed] a public statement Coretta Scott King issued in 1996, in which she said that King would be a champion of gay rights if he were alive.

[229] Sharpton Pledges Fight Against Homophobia Among Blacks Archived April 14, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Sun, August 3, 2005. "Rev. Sharpton has pledged to jumpstart a grassroots movement that would address the issue of homophobia in the black community. ... Al Sharpton was the only presidential candidate last year who unapologetically supported gay marriage, surprising critics who have tried to label him as a one-issue activist. ... Rev. Sharpton, who marched in the Gay Pride Parade this year for the first time, is perhaps the very person who can make a dent in the rampant homophobic views so entrenched in the African-American community."

[230] Sandalow, Marc (July 16, 2003). "Democrats divided on gay marriage". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 2, 2012. Retrieved January 11, 2008.

[:1-231] Gecewicz, Claire (October 7, 2014). "Blacks are Lukewarm to Gay Marriage, but Most Say Businesses Most Provide Wedding Services to Gay Couples". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015. Retrieved December 2, 2015.

[Dis-membering_Stonewall-232] "Dis-membering Stonewall". HuffPost. June 26, 2012. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved August 8, 2023.

[233] Platt-Boustan, Lia (May 2013). "RACIAL RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION IN AMERICAN CITIES" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research (19045): 1–29. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024 – via NBER.

[234] Smitherman, Geneva. Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.

[Pearson-235] "GHETTO". Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved May 11, 2008. Kim Pearson

[236] "Root shock: The consequences of African American dispossession" Journal of Urban Health. Springer, New York. Volume 78, Number 1, March 2001. doi:10.1093/jurban/78.1.72

[237] Wachtel, Paul L. (1999). Race in the Mind of America: Breaking the Vicious Circle Between Blacks and Whites. New York: Routledge. p. 219. ISBN 0-415-92000-0.

[238] Douglas A. Smith, "The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior", Crime and Justice, Vol. 8, Communities and Crime (1986), pp. 313–341.

[239] Thabit, Walter; Frances Fox Piven (2003). How East New York Became a Ghetto. New York: New York University Press. p. 80. ISBN 0-8147-8267-1.

[240] Rubin, Irene S. (1982). Running in the Red: The Political Dynamics of Urban Fiscal Stress. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-87395-564-1.

[241] "Church Culture as a Strategy of Action in the Black Community", Mary Pattillo-McCoy, American Sociological Review, Vol. 63, No. 6 (December 1998), pp. 767–784.

[242] "'Gathering the Spirit' at First Baptist Church: Spirituality as a Protective Factor in the Lives of African American Children" by Wendy L. Haight; Social Work, Vol. 43, 1998.

[243] "Black architecture still standing, the Shotgun House" Archived October 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Great Buildings Collection on CD-ROM Kevin Matthews. African American Registry.

[244] "African American Culture & Foods".

[245] Wood, Molly (June 8, 2020). "From BlackPlanet to Black Twitter, the evolution of Black voices on social". Marketplace. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2021.

[246] Auxier, Brooke (December 11, 2020). "Social media continue to be important political outlets for Black Americans". Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved August 8, 2023.

[247] "Why Black Teens Are the Biggest Users of Instagram and Snapchat". AfroTech. June 12, 2018. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2021.

[248] Maina, Beatrice (June 8, 2023). "Black Culture: 5 African American Cultural Values With Rich History". Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[249] Wesson, Stephen (August 16, 2022). "Education in Enslaved Communities | Teaching with the Library". Library of Congress Blogs. Archived from the original on July 22, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.

[250] "Slavery and the Making of America". Thirteen. July 6, 2023. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved August 13, 2023.

[251] "Education Steeped in African American Culture: Historically Black Colleges and Universities". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[Trials5-252] Gates, Jr., Henry Louis, Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters with the Founding Fathers, Basic Civitas Books, 2010, p. 5. ISBN 9780465018505

[253] For example, in the name of the Phyllis Wheatley YWCA in Washington, D.C., where "Phyllis" is etched into the name over its front door (as can be seen in photos Archived September 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine and corresponding text Archived September 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.

[254] Peterson, Carla (1995). Doers of the Word: African-American Women Speakers and Writers in the North (1830–1880). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8135-2514-3.

[Reference_B2-255] Long, Carolyn Morrow (1997). "John the Conqueror: From Root-Charm to Commercial Product". Pharmacy in History. 39 (2): 47–48, 51. JSTOR 41111803.

[Reference_A2-256] Tyler, Varro (1991). "The Elusive History of High John the Conqueror Root". Pharmacy in History. 33 (4): 165–166. JSTOR 41112508. PMID 11612725. Archived from the original on March 21, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[The_sanctified_church_:_Hurston,_Zora_Neale_:_Free_Download,_Borrow,_and_Streaming_:_Internet_Archive2-257] Hurston, Zora Neale (1981). The Sanctified Church. Berkeley. pp. 69–78. ISBN 9780913666449.

[The_Annotated_African_American_Folktales_(The_Annotated_Books)_-_Google_Books2-258] Gates, Henry Louis; Tatar, Maria (2017). The Annotated African American Folktales (The Annotated Books). Liveright. ISBN 9780871407566. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[Reference_C2-259] Powell, Timothy. "Ebos Landing". New Georgia Encyclopedia. University of Georgia Press. Archived from the original on August 26, 2021. Retrieved January 11, 2022.

[propaganda-260] Ogunleye, Tolagbe (1997). "African American Folklore: Its Role in Reconstructing African American History". Journal of Black Studies. 27 (4): 435–455. doi:10.1177/002193479702700401. ISSN 0021-9347. JSTOR 2784725. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2024.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

v t e Contemporary African-American culture
Fashion and style	African American English African American hair Sagging Crunk Grills Sneaker collecting Streetball Crip Walk Dreadlocks
Television, film and music	African American films BET Black sitcoms Reality TV Bounce TV Hood film Revolt Oprah Winfrey Network
Events	Black Reel Awards American Black Film Festival BET Awards Hair Wars Urban Beach Week Black Bike Week Soul Train Music Awards
Cultural and population centres	Atlanta Memphis Detroit South Side, Chicago Harlem New Orleans Washington, D.C. South Los Angeles Houston Baton Rouge Philadelphia Baltimore Dallas St. Louis Milwaukee Jackson Birmingham Miami Cleveland Boston Denver Omaha Raleigh New York City Southern United States Cities and neighborhoods: Cities with large African American populations Communities with African American majority populations
Concepts and slang	Bling-bling Good hair CPT Baby mama Down-low Stop Snitchin' Acting white Purple drank The Dozens Throw shade
Social issues	Racial profiling (Driving While Black) Police brutality Gangs Tobacco marketing and African Americans Crack cocaine epidemic McDonald's advertising

African-American cultural history

Shared history in the Americas

Oral tradition

Harlem Renaissance

African-American cultural movement

Music

Contemporary

The arts

Dance

Art

Ceramics

Literature

Cinema

Games

Museums

Language

Fashion and aesthetics

Attire

Hair

Body image

Religion and spirituality

Christianity

Islam

Judaism

Other religions

Spirituality

Irreligious beliefs

Life events

Cuisine

Holidays and observances

Names

Family

African-American family structure

Politics and social issues

African-American LGBT culture

African-American population centers

Ghettos

Flag

Social networks

Education

Literature

Folklore

Cinema

See also

References

Bibliography

Primary sources